Paintings: Murals & Miniatures
Painting is one of the oldest and most expressive forms of Indian art, and the story of Indian painting begins with the prehistoric rock art of the Stone Age and continues through the great murals of the Buddhist caves, the refined miniatures of the Mughal and Rajput courts, and the living folk traditions of villages across the country. For competitive examinations such as ADRE, APSC, Assam Police, SSC, Railways and other state services, this topic is important because questions are frequently asked about the location of a painting, its period, its patron, its material and its characteristic style. These study notes bring together the six most examined areas, the key factual details that repeat in papers, the common traps that candidates fall into, and a set of frequently asked questions with explained answers.
Prehistoric and ancient painting
The earliest examples of painting in India are found in the prehistoric rock shelters of Bhimbetka, situated in the Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh in the foothills of the Vindhya range. The site was discovered in 1957 by the archaeologist V. S. Wakankar, and in 2003 it was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site under the name Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka. The name is derived from Bhima, a hero of the Mahabharata, and the site contains more than seven hundred rock shelters, of which about a hundred bear paintings. The paintings were executed with natural mineral pigments such as red ochre or haematite for red, and they depict hunting scenes, dancing figures, animals such as bison, deer, tiger, rhinoceros and elephant, and later also horse riders and religious symbols. They span a very long period from the Paleolithic to the medieval age, which makes them a continuous record of human life. Other important prehistoric art sites include Lakhudiyar in Uttarakhand and the rock art of Chaturbhuj Nala in Madhya Pradesh. Bhimbetka is often described as the oldest living rock art site of the Indian subcontinent.
Mural painting
Mural painting means painting executed directly on a wall, ceiling or a large permanent surface. The finest examples of ancient Indian mural painting are the Ajanta caves in the Chhatrapati Sambhajinagar district of Maharashtra, located on the banks of the Waghora river. The Ajanta caves are Buddhist, numbering twenty-nine, and were rediscovered in 1819 by the British officer John Smith. They were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983. The Ajanta paintings illustrate Jataka tales, the previous births of the Buddha, and are famous for the Bodhisattva Padmapani and the Mahajanaka Jataka. The technique used at Ajanta is tempera or fresco-secco, in which colours were applied on a dry, prepared ground of clay, cow dung and lime plaster rather than on wet lime as in true fresco. The Ellora caves, also a UNESCO site, contain Hindu, Buddhist and Jain murals. The Bagh caves of Dhar district in Madhya Pradesh are Buddhist and use a similar tempera technique. Sittanavasal in Tamil Nadu is a Jain site, while Lepakshi in Andhra Pradesh, associated with the Vijayanagara period and the Veerabhadra temple, is known for its frescoes. Kerala also developed a rich tradition of temple murals.
Miniature painting
Miniature painting refers to small-sized paintings, usually executed on palm leaf, paper or cloth, and intended to be held in the hand or kept in albums. Miniature artists used natural mineral and vegetable pigments and very fine brushes made from squirrel hair, and the works were often framed with decorative borders. The Pala school of Bengal flourished from about the eighth to the twelfth century and produced Buddhist paintings on palm-leaf manuscripts, such as the Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita, and it was centred on the monasteries of Nalanda and Vikramashila. The Mughal school began under Humayun with the Persian masters Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd al-Samad and reached its height under Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan. Akbar patronised the Hamzanama and the Akbarnama, and artists such as Basawan, Daswanth and Miskin illustrated historical and literary texts. Jahangir encouraged naturalism and portraiture, and his court painter Ustad Mansur was celebrated as Nadir-ul-Asr, the wonder of the age. The Deccan school, with centres at Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golconda and Hyderabad, was known for its rich colour and Ragamala themes. The Rajput and Rajasthan schools included Mewar, Marwar, Bundi, Kota and Kishangarh, while the Pahari schools included Basohli, Guler, Kangra and Chamba. Kangra painting, developed from the Guler style by artists such as Nainsukh and Manaku, is famous for its lyrical Radha-Krishna themes.
Company painting and Mysore and Tanjore painting
Company painting is the name given to the hybrid style that developed in India in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries when Indian artists worked under the patronage of officials of the British East India Company. These artists adapted their traditional techniques to European tastes and produced watercolour studies of birds, animals, plants, monuments, festivals, castes and occupations. Important centres of Company painting were Murshidabad, Patna, Delhi and Thanjavur, and the Patna school is associated with the artist Sewak Ram. Mysore painting is a traditional form from Karnataka that grew out of the legacy of the Vijayanagara empire and flourished under the Wodeyar rulers. It is known for its elegant figures of Hindu deities and for the use of thin gold leaf applied over gesso, a paste made of glue and chalk, to give a raised and glittering effect. Tanjore painting, also called Thanjavur painting, is a classical south Indian form from Tamil Nadu that shows Maratha and Vijayanagara influence. Like Mysore painting, it uses a gesso base and gold foil as well as glass beads and precious stones, and it mainly depicts religious subjects such as Vishnu, Shiva, Lakshmi and Krishna. Tanjore and Mysore paintings are often compared because both use gesso and gold, but Tanjore is more ornate and decorative.
Folk painting traditions
Folk painting traditions are living art forms practised by communities and closely connected with ritual, festival and daily life. Madhubani painting, also called Mithila painting, comes from the Mithila region of Bihar and is traditionally done by women on the walls of homes during weddings and festivals. It uses natural colours and is characterised by bold lines, double outlines and densely packed motifs of fish, lotus, peacocks and figures of Rama and Sita; it was brought to wider attention after the earthquake of 1966, and the artists Sita Devi and Ganga Devi are well known. Warli painting belongs to the Warli tribe of Maharashtra and uses white rice paste on a base of mud and cow dung; its figures are geometric, and the tarpa dance and the chauk are common themes, with Jivya Soma Mashe being a famous artist. Gond painting of Madhya Pradesh, associated with the artist Jangarh Singh Shyam, uses dots and dashes to create mythical animals and trees. Kalamkari of Andhra Pradesh is practised at Machilipatnam and Srikalahasti and uses a pen or blocks with vegetable dyes. Pattachitra of Odisha, centred on Puri and the village of Raghurajpur, is painted on cloth and depicts Jagannath. Phad is a scroll painting of Rajasthan from Bhilwara and Shahpura, showing Pabuji and Devnarayan. Kalighat painting arose in nineteenth-century Calcutta near the Kalighat temple and is known for its watercolour satire. Pithora is a ritual wall painting of Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh.
Key exam facts
Several factual details about pigments, techniques and institutions are frequently tested. Indian painters traditionally used natural pigments: red came from red ochre or haematite, yellow from orpiment or haratala, black from lamp soot or kajal, white from lime or chalk, and green from glauconite or, in Pahari painting, from crushed beetle wings. Ajanta uses the tempera or fresco-secco technique, while true fresco involves painting on wet lime plaster. The Ajanta caves preserve the largest surviving body of ancient Indian mural painting, and their naturalism, shading and expressive figures are considered their main stylistic features. Mughal painting is marked by fine brushwork, Persian influence, naturalism and decorative borders, while Rajput painting is known for bold flat colour and devotional themes, and Pahari painting for its lyrical and delicate treatment of nature and love. The preservation of these works is the responsibility of institutions such as the Archaeological Survey of India, which maintains Ajanta, Ellora, Bagh and many monuments. The National Museum in New Delhi, the Indian Museum in Kolkata and the Salar Jung Museum in Hyderabad hold important collections, and the Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts and the Ministry of Culture support research and conservation. Several folk forms, including Madhubani, Warli and Pattachitra, have received Geographical Indication tags. In Odisha, artists officially recognised as Chitrakars paint Pattachitra.
Key Facts at a Glance
- Bhimbetka rock shelters are in Raisen district, Madhya Pradesh.
- Bhimbetka was discovered in 1957 by V. S. Wakankar.
- Bhimbetka became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003.
- Bhimbetka is among the oldest rock art sites in India.
- Ajanta caves are in Maharashtra, on the Waghora river.
- Ajanta was rediscovered in 1819 by John Smith and is a Buddhist site.
- Ajanta has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1983.
- Ajanta uses the tempera or fresco-secco technique.
- Ellora contains Hindu, Buddhist and Jain caves.
- Bagh caves are in Dhar district, Madhya Pradesh.
- Sittanavasal is a Jain site in Tamil Nadu; Lepakshi is in Andhra Pradesh.
- The Pala school of Bengal painted Buddhist palm-leaf manuscripts.
- Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd al-Samad brought Persian style to the Mughal court.
- Ustad Mansur was Jahangir's famous nature painter.
- Kishangarh is known for the Bani Thani style; Kangra for Radha-Krishna themes.
- Company painting developed under British East India Company patronage.
- Mysore and Tanjore paintings use gesso and gold leaf.
- Madhubani is from Bihar; Warli from Maharashtra; Gond from Madhya Pradesh.
Quick Revision Points
- Bhimbetka is prehistoric; Ajanta is Buddhist mural; Mughal is miniature.
- Tempera or fresco-secco is the Ajanta technique, not true fresco.
- Pala is Buddhist; Mughal is Persian-influenced; Rajput and Pahari are devotional.
- Basohli, Guler, Kangra and Chamba are Pahari schools.
- Madhubani, Warli, Gond, Kalamkari, Pattachitra, Phad and Kalighat are folk forms.
- Mysore and Tanjore are classical south Indian temple paintings.
- Company painting is a colonial hybrid style.
How to Prepare This Topic
- Learn each site with its state, period and religion.
- Memorise the technique names, especially tempera and fresco-secco.
- Group the schools by region and by patron.
- Remember the famous artists and the rulers who patronised them.
- Link each folk form to its state and community.
- Practise matching questions on pigments and materials.
- Revise the institutions that preserve the art.
Common Exam Traps
- Confusing Ajanta (Buddhist, Maharashtra) with Ellora (Hindu, Buddhist and Jain).
- Thinking Ajanta uses true fresco; it actually uses tempera or fresco-secco.
- Mixing up Bagh (Madhya Pradesh) with other cave sites.
- Confusing Mysore and Tanjore painting, though both use gesso and gold.
- Attributing the Pala school to the Mughals instead of Bengal.
- Placing Kangra in Rajasthan instead of the Pahari region.
- Mixing up the states of folk forms, such as Warli and Gond.
- Confusing Company painting with miniature painting.
Frequently Asked Questions
Where are the Bhimbetka rock shelters and why are they important?
The Bhimbetka rock shelters are in the Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh, in the Vindhya range. They were discovered in 1957 by V. S. Wakankar and were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003. They are important because they contain prehistoric paintings that record hunting, dancing, animals and daily life from the Paleolithic period onwards.
What is the difference between Ajanta and Ellora?
Ajanta is a Buddhist cave site in Maharashtra on the Waghora river and is famous for its murals and Jataka tales. Ellora, also in Maharashtra, contains Hindu, Buddhist and Jain caves, including the rock-cut Kailasa temple. Both are UNESCO World Heritage Sites, but Ajanta is known mainly for painting while Ellora is known mainly for sculpture and architecture.
What is the technique used in the Ajanta paintings?
The Ajanta paintings use the tempera or fresco-secco technique. Colours were applied on a dry ground prepared from clay, cow dung and lime plaster, not on wet lime as in true fresco. Natural pigments such as red ochre, yellow orpiment, lamp black and lime white were used, and the paintings show a high degree of naturalism and shading.
What is the difference between Mysore and Tanjore painting?
Both Mysore and Tanjore paintings are classical south Indian temple paintings that use a gesso base and gold leaf. Mysore painting, from Karnataka, is more subtle and elegant with thin gold leaf, while Tanjore painting, from Tamil Nadu, is more ornate and decorative, often using gold foil, glass beads and precious stones.
Name some important folk painting traditions of India with their states.
Important folk traditions include Madhubani from Bihar, Warli from Maharashtra, Gond from Madhya Pradesh, Kalamkari from Andhra Pradesh, Pattachitra from Odisha, Phad from Rajasthan, Kalighat from Bengal and Pithora from Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. These forms are closely linked to ritual and community life, and several have received Geographical Indication tags.