Classical Languages & Literature
India is home to one of the oldest continuous literary traditions in the world, and questions on classical languages and literature appear regularly in the general knowledge and art and culture sections of ADRE, APSC, Assam Police, DHS, SSC and Railway examinations. This topic brings together two connected strands: the languages that have been formally granted classical status by the Government of India, and the great works of poetry, drama, grammar and philosophy composed in those languages. Candidates are usually asked about the number of classical languages, the year in which each was recognised, the authors of famous texts such as the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the Arthashastra and the Abhijnanasakuntalam, and the Sangam literature of Tamil. Because the facts are fixed and the names repeat, this is a high-scoring topic once the author-text pairs are memorised.
What Makes a Language Classical
A language is granted classical status in India if it has a recorded history of high antiquity, a body of ancient literature that is regarded as a valuable heritage, an original literary tradition that is not borrowed from another speech community, and a marked discontinuity between the classical language and its later forms or offshoots. The Government of India grants this status on the recommendation of a committee of experts and a Linguistic Experts Committee. Classical status carries benefits such as academic centres of excellence, research grants and international awards for scholars. The recognition is announced by the Ministry of Culture and is a favourite topic for one-line objective questions about years and languages.
The Classical Languages of India
India currently recognises several classical languages. Tamil was the first to receive the status, in 2004. Sanskrit was declared classical in 2005. Kannada and Telugu were granted the status in 2008, Malayalam in 2013 and Odia in 2014. For many years examinations treated the number as six, but candidates should note that the list has since expanded, with the Government approving classical status for Marathi, Pali, Prakrit, Assamese and Bengali in 2024. Tamil is regarded as the oldest classical language and the oldest among the Dravidian languages, while Sanskrit is the oldest language of the Indo-Aryan family and is called Devabhasha, the language of the gods. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas.
The Epics and the Vedic Corpus
The two great epics of India are the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The Ramayana was composed by Sage Valmiki and is called the Adikavya, while the Mahabharata is attributed to Sage Vyasa and is the longest epic in the world, with about one hundred thousand verses. The Bhagavad Gita is a part of the Mahabharata consisting of seven hundred verses in the form of a dialogue between Lord Krishna and Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra, and it deals with duty, karma and devotion. The Vedas, the oldest layer of Indian literature, are the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda, and each has four parts: Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka and Upanishad. The Upanishads form the philosophical core and are the basis of Vedanta.
Sanskrit Poetry, Drama and Grammar
Kalidasa is the greatest name in classical Sanskrit literature and is often called the Shakespeare of India. His works include the plays Abhijnanasakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram and Vikramorvasiyam, and the poems Raghuvamsa, Kumarasambhava and Meghaduta. Meghaduta is a lyric poem in which a Yaksha sends a message to his beloved through a cloud. The Abhijnanasakuntalam, based on the story of Shakuntala and Dushyanta, is regarded as his masterpiece and has been translated into many languages. Other important Sanskrit authors include Panini, who composed the Ashtadhyayi, the foundational grammar of Sanskrit; Kautilya or Chanakya, the author of the Arthashastra on statecraft and economics; Vishnu Sharma, the author of the Panchatantra; Bharata Muni, the author of the Natyashastra; Vishakhadatta, the author of the Mudrarakshasa; Ashvaghosha, the author of the Buddhacharita and Saundarananda; and Jayadeva, the author of the Gitagovinda.
Tamil and the Sangam Age
Tamil literature begins with the Sangam corpus, composed roughly between 300 BCE and 300 CE, which is the oldest surviving Tamil literature and includes the Tolkappiyam, a work on grammar and poetics. The Sangam anthologies such as the Ettuthogai, Pattuppattu and the Eighteen Minor Works are central to Tamil literary history. The great epics of Tamil are the Silappatikaram, written by Ilango Adigal, and the Manimekalai, written by Sattanar. The Tirukkural, composed by Thiruvalluvar, consists of 1330 couplets arranged in 133 chapters on virtue, wealth and love, and is one of the most translated works in the world. The Sangam age is also remembered for the Pandya kings, who patronised the academies or sangams at Madurai. Tamil is thus both the oldest classical language and the one with the longest unbroken literary tradition among the Dravidian languages.
The Other Classical Languages and Their Literature
Kannada, recognised as classical in 2008, has an ancient tradition associated with the Rashtrakuta and Hoysala courts and with works such as the Kavirajamarga, the earliest surviving Kannada work on poetics. Telugu, also recognised in 2008, is called the Italian of the East because of its vowel-ending sweetness, and its classical period is associated with the Vijayanagara and Kakatiya courts and with the poet Nannaya, who began the Telugu rendering of the Mahabharata. Malayalam, recognised in 2013, developed its own script and literature by the medieval period, with the Ramacharitam as an early work. Odia, recognised in 2014, has a rich tradition associated with the Ganga and Gajapati dynasties, and its early works include the Madala Panji and the writings of Sarala Das. Sanskrit influenced all these literatures, but each developed a distinct identity and corpus of its own.
Religious and Philosophical Literature
Beyond the epics, India produced a vast body of religious and philosophical literature. The Puranas are eighteen major texts that contain mythology, cosmology and genealogies, and they are closely linked with the growth of devotional traditions. The Buddhist canon was composed in Pali and includes the Tripitaka, consisting of the Vinaya, Sutta and Abhidhamma Pitakas. The Jain canon, the Agamas, was composed in Prakrit, and the Tattvartha Sutra is a key philosophical text. The Bhagavata Purana, the Devi Mahatmya and the Gitagovinda are central to the bhakti tradition. The Ashtavakra Gita is a text on Advaita Vedanta attributed to Sage Ashtavakra. This literature is important because examinations often connect a text with its language, religion or philosophical school.
Key Facts at a Glance
- Tamil was the first language to be given classical status, in 2004.
- Sanskrit was declared classical in 2005.
- Kannada and Telugu were granted classical status in 2008.
- Malayalam was granted classical status in 2013 and Odia in 2014.
- Marathi, Pali, Prakrit, Assamese and Bengali were approved for classical status in 2024.
- Tamil is the oldest classical language and the oldest Dravidian language.
- Sanskrit is called Devabhasha and is the oldest Indo-Aryan language.
- The Ramayana was composed by Valmiki and the Mahabharata by Vyasa.
- The Bhagavad Gita has 700 verses and is part of the Mahabharata.
- Kalidasa is called the Shakespeare of India.
- Kalidasa wrote Abhijnanasakuntalam, Meghaduta and Raghuvamsa.
- Panini wrote the Ashtadhyayi, a Sanskrit grammar.
- Kautilya wrote the Arthashastra.
- Vishnu Sharma wrote the Panchatantra.
- Bharata Muni wrote the Natyashastra.
- Thiruvalluvar wrote the Tirukkural, with 1330 couplets.
- Ilango Adigal wrote the Silappatikaram and Sattanar the Manimekalai.
- The Tolkappiyam is the earliest surviving Tamil work.
- The Sangam literature dates roughly from 300 BCE to 300 CE.
- Jayadeva wrote the Gitagovinda.
Quick Revision Points
- Memorise the classical languages in the order of recognition: Tamil, Sanskrit, Kannada and Telugu, Malayalam, Odia.
- Learn author-text pairs as a single unit, for example Kalidasa-Abhijnanasakuntalam and Kautilya-Arthashastra.
- Remember that the Ramayana is the Adikavya and the Mahabharata is the longest epic.
- Keep the Sangam works, the Tolkappiyam and the Tirukkural together as the Tamil block.
- Note the language of each religious canon: Pali for Buddhism, Prakrit for Jainism, Sanskrit for the Vedas.
- Update your notes with the 2024 classical language announcement.
How to Prepare This Topic
- Make a table of every classical language with its year of recognition and one key work.
- Prepare a two-column list of authors and their works and revise it aloud.
- Group the texts by language: Sanskrit, Tamil, Pali and Prakrit.
- Learn the structure of the Vedas and the number of verses in the Gita and the Kural.
- Read short summaries of the Mahabharata, the Ramayana and the Abhijnanasakuntalam.
- Practice objective questions on years, authors and firsts.
Common Exam Traps
- Mixing up Valmiki with Vyasa; Valmiki wrote the Ramayana and Vyasa the Mahabharata.
- Forgetting that Tamil, not Sanskrit, was the first classical language recognised.
- Attributing the Arthashastra to Vishnu Sharma instead of Kautilya.
- Confusing the Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadatta with the works of Kalidasa.
- Saying the Tolkappiyam is an epic when it is a grammatical and poetical work.
- Using the outdated number six for classical languages after the 2024 additions.
Frequently Asked Questions
How many classical languages does India recognise and which was first?
Tamil was the first language to be granted classical status, in 2004, followed by Sanskrit in 2005, Kannada and Telugu in 2008, Malayalam in 2013 and Odia in 2014. In 2024 the Government also approved classical status for Marathi, Pali, Prakrit, Assamese and Bengali, so candidates should update older notes that mention only six.
Who wrote the Ramayana and the Mahabharata?
The Ramayana was composed by Sage Valmiki and is known as the Adikavya. The Mahabharata is attributed to Sage Vyasa and is the longest epic in the world. The Bhagavad Gita, a dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna, forms part of the Mahabharata.
Why is Kalidasa important and what are his main works?
Kalidasa is regarded as the greatest poet and dramatist of classical Sanskrit and is called the Shakespeare of India. His major works include the plays Abhijnanasakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram and Vikramorvasiyam, and the poems Raghuvamsa, Kumarasambhava and Meghaduta.
What is Sangam literature and name its important works.
Sangam literature is the oldest surviving Tamil literature, composed roughly between 300 BCE and 300 CE. Its important works include the Tolkappiyam, the Ettuthogai and Pattuppattu anthologies, the epics Silappatikaram by Ilango Adigal and Manimekalai by Sattanar, and the Tirukkural of Thiruvalluvar.
Which languages were used for the Buddhist and Jain canons?
The Buddhist canon, the Tripitaka, was composed in Pali and consists of the Vinaya, Sutta and Abhidhamma Pitakas. The Jain canon, the Agamas, was composed in Prakrit, and the Tattvartha Sutra is a key Jain philosophical text. The Vedas and the epics were composed in Sanskrit.