Major Religions & Philosophical Schools
India is the birthplace of several of the world's great religions and of one of its oldest and most sophisticated philosophical traditions. Questions on religions and philosophical schools are a recurring feature of the art and culture, history and general knowledge papers of ADRE, APSC, Assam Police, DHS, SSC and Railway examinations. This topic requires candidates to distinguish between the orthodox or Astika schools that accept the authority of the Vedas and the heterodox or Nastika schools that reject it, to know the founders and central texts of each school, and to remember the core doctrines of Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. The names and the founding figures repeat across years, so a well-organised comparison table turns this topic into easy marks.
The Six Orthodox Schools of Philosophy
Indian philosophy is traditionally divided into orthodox or Astika systems, which accept the authority of the Vedas, and heterodox or Nastika systems, which do not. There are six orthodox schools, often grouped in three pairs. Samkhya, attributed to Sage Kapila, teaches dualism of Purusha or consciousness and Prakriti or matter. Yoga, systematised by Patanjali in the Yoga Sutras, is the practical discipline that leads to the union of the individual self with the universal self. Nyaya, founded by Sage Gautama or Akshapada, is the school of logic and epistemology. Vaisheshika, founded by Sage Kanada, is an atomistic system dealing with categories and the nature of reality. Mimamsa, founded by Jaimini, focuses on the interpretation of the Vedas and on ritual. Vedanta, based on the Upanishads, concerns itself with the nature of Brahman and the self, and its chief exponent was Adi Shankaracharya.
Vedanta and Its Sub-Schools
Vedanta, literally the end of the Vedas, is the most influential school today and has several sub-schools. Advaita or non-dualism, propounded by Adi Shankaracharya, holds that the individual soul, Atman, and the ultimate reality, Brahman, are one and that the world of multiplicity is Maya or illusion. Vishishtadvaita or qualified non-dualism, taught by Ramanujacharya, holds that the soul and matter are real but are attributes of Brahman. Dvaita or dualism, founded by Madhvacharya, teaches that the individual soul and God are eternally distinct. These three philosophers, Shankara, Ramanuja and Madhva, are central to Vaishnavite and Vedantic thought and their dates and doctrines are frequent examination questions. The Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahma Sutras form the Prasthanatrayi, the triple foundation of Vedanta.
Buddhism and Its Doctrines
Buddhism was founded by Gautama Buddha, who was born as Siddhartha Gautama in Lumbini in the sixth century BCE, attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya and delivered his first sermon at Sarnath. The core of the teaching lies in the Four Noble Truths: that life involves suffering, that suffering has a cause, that suffering can cease, and that there is a path leading to that cessation. That path is the Eightfold Path of right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration. Buddhist scripture, the Tripitaka, is divided into the Vinaya, Sutta and Abhidhamma Pitakas and was composed in Pali. Buddhism split into the Theravada and Mahayana schools, and later Vajrayana developed. The Buddhist councils and the missionary work of Ashoka and Kanishka are important historical anchors.
Jainism and Its Doctrines
Jainism was established by Vardhamana Mahavira, the twenty-fourth and last Tirthankara, who lived in the sixth century BCE and was a contemporary of the Buddha. The first Tirthankara is Rishabhanatha, also called Adinatha, and Parshvanatha, the twenty-third, is also important. The central principle of Jainism is Ahimsa or non-violence, and the tradition lays great stress on asceticism and self-discipline. The Three Jewels of Jainism are Right Faith, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct, and liberation is to be achieved by freeing the soul from karma. The Jain canon, the Agamas, is in Prakrit, and the Tattvartha Sutra of Umasvati is a key philosophical text. Jainism was patronised by rulers such as Chandragupta Maurya, Kharavela and the Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas, and its contribution to art is seen at Mount Abu and Shravanabelagola.
Other Heterodox Schools
Besides Buddhism and Jainism, several other heterodox schools played a role in Indian thought. Charvaka, also called Lokayata, was a materialist and sceptical school that rejected the authority of the Vedas, the existence of the soul and the idea of an afterlife; it is associated with Brihaspati. The Ajivikas were a fatalistic ascetic sect founded by Makkhali Gosala. These schools are important because they illustrate the intellectual diversity of ancient India and are often asked in questions about the Nastika traditions. The distinction between Astika and Nastika does not refer to belief in God but to the acceptance or rejection of the Vedas as authoritative, which is a common trap in objective questions.
Sikhism and the Guru Tradition
Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak in the fifteenth century in Punjab. It teaches the oneness of God, the equality of all human beings, the rejection of caste and ritual, and the importance of honest work and service. There were ten Sikh Gurus, and Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth, founded the Khalsa in 1699. The holy book of Sikhism is the Guru Granth Sahib, which was compiled by Guru Arjan Dev and is regarded as the eternal Guru. Sikhism's sacred sites include the Golden Temple at Amritsar and the birthplace of Guru Nanak at Nankana Sahib. The community kitchen or langar and the practice of sewa are central to Sikh ethics, and these features are often asked along with the names of the Gurus and the Khalsa.
Texts, Puranas and Tantra
The sacred literature of India spans a vast range. The Vedas, Upanishads and the epics have already been noted. The Puranas are eighteen major texts that contain mythology, cosmology and the genealogies of gods and kings, and they shaped popular Hinduism. The Agamas and Tantras are texts of ritual and esoteric practice associated with Shaivism, Shaktism and Vaishnavism; Tantra is a tradition of ritual and meditation found in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. Other important religions that have a long presence in India include Islam, which arrived through traders and conquerors and produced a rich Indo-Islamic culture, Christianity, which according to tradition was brought to India by St Thomas, Zoroastrianism, whose followers the Parsis settled in Gujarat, and Judaism, with ancient synagogues in Kerala and Maharashtra. Tribal and folk religions also form part of India's living heritage.
Founders, Texts and Key Doctrines
Because the same names recur, it helps to memorise them in compact pairs. Samkhya is Kapila, Yoga is Patanjali, Nyaya is Gautama, Vaisheshika is Kanada, Mimamsa is Jaimini and Vedanta is Vyasa or Badarayana with Shankara as its greatest exponent. Among the heterodox schools, Buddhism is the Buddha, Jainism is Mahavira, Charvaka is Brihaspati and the Ajivikas are Makkhali Gosala. Among devotional reformers, Shankara, Ramanuja and Madhva belong to Vedanta, while Guru Nanak founded Sikhism. Remembering the founder-text-doctrine triplet for each school is the single most effective way to answer this topic accurately under time pressure.
Key Facts at a Glance
- The six orthodox schools are Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.
- Samkhya was founded by Sage Kapila and teaches Purusha and Prakriti dualism.
- Yoga is based on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.
- Nyaya was founded by Gautama and is known for logic.
- Vaisheshika was founded by Kanada and is atomistic.
- Mimamsa was founded by Jaimini and focuses on ritual and the Vedas.
- Vedanta's chief exponent was Adi Shankaracharya.
- Advaita was taught by Shankara, Vishishtadvaita by Ramanuja and Dvaita by Madhva.
- Buddhism was founded by Gautama Buddha and its core is the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path.
- The Buddhist canon, the Tripitaka, is in Pali and has three Pitakas.
- Jainism was established by Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara.
- The first Tirthankara of Jainism is Rishabhanatha or Adinatha.
- The Three Jewels of Jainism are Right Faith, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct.
- The central principle of Jainism is Ahimsa, non-violence.
- Charvaka is a materialistic heterodox school associated with Brihaspati.
- Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak in the 15th century.
- The holy book of Sikhism is the Guru Granth Sahib.
- Guru Gobind Singh founded the Khalsa in 1699.
- The Mahabharata is the longest epic in the world.
- There are eighteen major Puranas.
Quick Revision Points
- Remember Astika means accepting the Vedas, not believing in God.
- Learn the six schools in their three pairs: Samkhya-Yoga, Nyaya-Vaisheshika, Mimamsa-Vedanta.
- Keep the three Vedanta sub-schools and their founders together: Shankara, Ramanuja and Madhva.
- For Buddhism, memorise the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path.
- For Jainism, memorise the 24 Tirthankaras, the Three Jewels and Ahimsa.
- For Sikhism, memorise the ten Gurus, the Guru Granth Sahib and the Khalsa of 1699.
How to Prepare This Topic
- Prepare a table with columns for school, founder, key text and main doctrine.
- Separate the orthodox and heterodox schools clearly.
- Write short notes on the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path.
- List the Tirthankaras and the Three Jewels of Jainism.
- Note the ten Sikh Gurus and the founding of the Khalsa.
- Revise the founders repeatedly, as they are the most commonly asked facts.
Common Exam Traps
- Mixing up Kapila of Samkhya with Kanada of Vaisheshika.
- Attributing the Yoga Sutras to Shankara instead of Patanjali.
- Confusing the founders of Advaita, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita.
- Thinking that Astika means belief in God; it means acceptance of the Vedas.
- Naming Mahavira as the first Tirthankara; he is the twenty-fourth and Rishabhanatha is the first.
- Forgetting that the Guru Granth Sahib is the eternal Guru of the Sikhs.
Frequently Asked Questions
What are the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy and who founded them?
The six orthodox or Astika schools are Samkhya founded by Kapila, Yoga systematised by Patanjali, Nyaya founded by Gautama, Vaisheshika founded by Kanada, Mimamsa founded by Jaimini and Vedanta whose chief exponent was Adi Shankaracharya. These schools accept the authority of the Vedas.
Explain the difference between Advaita, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita.
Advaita or non-dualism was propounded by Adi Shankaracharya and teaches that Atman and Brahman are one. Vishishtadvaita or qualified non-dualism was taught by Ramanujacharya and holds that the soul and matter are real attributes of Brahman. Dvaita or dualism was founded by Madhvacharya and teaches that the soul and God are eternally distinct.
What are the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path of Buddhism?
The Four Noble Truths state that life involves suffering, that suffering has a cause, that suffering can cease and that there is a path to its cessation. The Eightfold Path consists of right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration. They form the core of the Buddha's teaching.
Who founded Jainism and what are its central principles?
Jainism was established by Vardhamana Mahavira, the twenty-fourth Tirthankara, with Rishabhanatha as the first. Its central principle is Ahimsa or non-violence, and its Three Jewels are Right Faith, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct. The Jain canon, the Agamas, is in Prakrit and the Tattvartha Sutra is a key text.
Who founded Sikhism and what is its holy book?
Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak in the fifteenth century in Punjab. There were ten Sikh Gurus, and Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth, founded the Khalsa in 1699. The holy book of Sikhism is the Guru Granth Sahib, compiled by Guru Arjan Dev and regarded as the eternal Guru.