About Ancient Indian Art, Architecture & Literature
Ancient India produced a rich heritage of art, architecture and literature. From the planned cities of the Indus Valley to the polished pillars of the Mauryas, the stupas and cave temples of the post-Mauryan age, the golden age of the Guptas, and the temples of the Pallavas, Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas, Indian art shows a continuous story of creativity and devotion. Alongside this grew great Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit and Tamil literature.
Harappan art and architecture is famous for its town planning, the grid pattern of streets, the citadel and lower town, the Great Bath at Mohenjodaro, granaries, covered drains and the dockyard at Lothal. The Harappans made the famous bronze dancing girl, the bearded priest, the Pashupati seal, toy carts and beautiful beads. They did not build large temples.
Mauryan art is divided into court art and popular art. The court art includes the magnificent monolithic polished stone pillars (such as the Sarnath Lion Capital, now the national emblem of India), the stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut, the rock-cut caves of Barabar (for the Ajivikas), and the palace at Pataliputra praised by Megasthenes. Popular art includes terracotta figures and Yaksha-Yakshi statues such as the Didarganj Yakshi.
Post-Mauryan art saw the beginning of Buddha images. Two great schools arose: the Gandhara school (in the north-west), which used grey schist and showed the Buddha with Hellenistic (Greek) features, and the Mathura school, which used spotted red sandstone and showed a more Indian-style Buddha. The Amaravati school in the south was famous for its white marble and narrative reliefs. The age also produced the early rock-cut caves at Ajanta, Bhaja, Karla, Udayagiri and Ellora.
Gupta art is the Golden Age of Indian art. The finest Buddha images were made at Sarnath and Mathura. The great Dashavatara temple at Deogarh is a fine example of the early Nagara style, and the Bhitargaon brick temple is the earliest surviving brick temple. The Ajanta paintings (Jataka stories) reached their peak, and the Mehrauli iron pillar shows Gupta metalwork. The Gupta age also saw great Sanskrit literature.
Temple architecture developed three main styles: the Nagara style of the north (curved shikhara), the Dravida style of the south (pyramidal vimana and gopuram), and the Vesara style of the Deccan (a blend of both). The Pallavas built the Five Rathas and the Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram; the Chalukyas built at Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal; and the Rashtrakutas carved the Kailasanatha temple at Ellora.
Literature. The Vedas (Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda), the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads form the earliest layer. The great epics are the Ramayana of Valmiki and the Mahabharata of Vyasa, along with the Puranas and the Manusmriti. Sanskrit reached its height with Kalidasa (Abhijnanashakuntalam, Meghaduta, Raghuvamsha, Kumarasambhava), Ashvaghosha (Buddhacharita), Vishakhadatta (Mudrarakshasa), Shudraka (Mrichchhakatika), Banabhatta (Harshacharita, Kadambari) and Kalhana (Rajatarangini). Scientific works include the Arthashastra of Kautilya, the Aryabhatiya of Aryabhata, the Brihatsamhita of Varahamihira and the Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita on medicine. Pali literature includes the Tripitaka (Vinaya, Sutta and Abhidhamma) and the Milindapanha; Prakrit includes the Jain Agamas and the Ardhamagadhi texts. The Tamil Sangam literature includes the Tolkappiyam (grammar), the Thirukkural of Thiruvalluvar, and the epics Silappadikaram and Manimekalai.
Timeline of Ancient Indian Art and Literature
- c. 2500 BC: Indus Valley cities, the Great Bath and the bronze dancing girl.
- c. 3rd century BC: Mauryan polished pillars, Sanchi and Barabar caves.
- c. 2nd–1st century BC: Bharhut and Sanchi railings; early rock-cut caves.
- 1st–3rd century AD: Gandhara and Mathura schools; Ajanta caves begin.
- 4th–6th century AD: Gupta Golden Age; Sarnath Buddha; Ajanta paintings; Kalidasa.
- 7th–9th century AD: Pallava and Chalukya temples at Mahabalipuram, Aihole and Pattadakal.
- 8th century AD: Rashtrakuta Kailasanatha temple at Ellora.
Main Facts (Quick Revision Bullets)
- Harappan town planning: grid pattern, citadel and lower town, covered drains.
- Harappan famous structures: the Great Bath (Mohenjodaro) and the dockyard (Lothal).
- National emblem of India: the Sarnath Lion Capital (Mauryan).
- Mauryan caves: Barabar caves, for the Ajivikas.
- Famous Mauryan stupas: Sanchi and Bharhut.
- Gandhara school: grey schist, Greco-Buddhist art.
- Mathura school: spotted red sandstone.
- Amaravati school: white marble, in the south.
- Gupta Nagara temple: Dashavatara temple, Deogarh.
- Earliest brick temple: Bhitargaon.
- Famous paintings: Ajanta (Jataka tales).
- Three temple styles: Nagara, Dravida and Vesara.
- Pallava monuments: Five Rathas and Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram.
- Chalukya monuments: Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal.
- Rashtrakuta monument: Kailasanatha temple, Ellora.
- Author of the Ramayana: Valmiki.
- Author of the Mahabharata: Vyasa.
- Greatest Sanskrit poet: Kalidasa.
- Author of the Arthashastra: Kautilya.
- Author of the Aryabhatiya: Aryabhata.
- Buddhist canon in Pali: the Tripitaka.
- Tamil grammar work: the Tolkappiyam.
- Author of the Thirukkural: Thiruvalluvar.
Important Persons, Works and Terms
- Kalidasa: greatest Sanskrit poet and dramatist; wrote Abhijnanashakuntalam, Meghaduta and Raghuvamsha.
- Valmiki: author of the Ramayana.
- Vyasa: author of the Mahabharata.
- Ashvaghosha: author of the Buddhacharita.
- Vishakhadatta: author of the Mudrarakshasa.
- Shudraka: author of the Mrichchhakatika.
- Banabhatta: author of the Harshacharita and Kadambari.
- Kalhana: author of the Rajatarangini.
- Kautilya: author of the Arthashastra.
- Aryabhata: author of the Aryabhatiya; a great mathematician and astronomer.
- Varahamihira: author of the Brihatsamhita and Panchasiddhantika.
- Thiruvalluvar: author of the Thirukkural.
- Gandhara and Mathura: the two great schools of Buddhist art.
Why Ancient Art and Literature Matters for Exams
Questions on art, architecture and literature appear in almost every exam. Common ones include: Which Ashokan capital is India’s national emblem? (the Sarnath Lion Capital.) Which two schools of art flourished in the Kushan age? (Gandhara and Mathura.) Which school used grey schist? (Gandhara.) Which Gupta temple is a fine example of the Nagara style? (the Dashavatara temple at Deogarh.) Where are the famous Jataka paintings? (the Ajanta caves.) Who built the Kailasanatha temple at Ellora? (the Rashtrakutas, under Krishna I.) Who wrote the Abhijnanashakuntalam? (Kalidasa.) Who wrote the Arthashastra? (Kautilya.) Who wrote the Buddhacharita? (Ashvaghosha.) Who wrote the Tolkappiyam? (the Tamil Sangam work on grammar.) Who wrote the Thirukkural? (Thiruvalluvar.) A common trap is to confuse the Gandhara school (Greek influence) with the Mathura school (Indian style), and to mix up the three temple styles.
How to Prepare Ancient Art and Literature
- Group art by age. Harappan, Mauryan, post-Mauryan, Gupta and the temple-building dynasties.
- Learn the schools of art. Gandhara (grey schist), Mathura (red sandstone) and Amaravati (white marble).
- Learn the temple styles. Nagara (north), Dravida (south) and Vesara (Deccan), with one example each.
- Link monuments to dynasties. Mahabalipuram to Pallavas, Aihole to Chalukyas, Ellora Kailasanatha to Rashtrakutas.
- Learn the major books and authors. Valmiki, Vyasa, Kalidasa, Ashvaghosha, Kautilya, Aryabhata and Thiruvalluvar.
Common Exam Traps
- Gandhara art shows Greek influence; Mathura art shows an Indian style.
- The Jataka paintings are in the Ajanta caves.
- Amaravati used white marble, not red sandstone.
- The Kailasanatha temple at Ellora is a Rashtrakuta monument.
- The Ramayana is by Valmiki and the Mahabharata by Vyasa; do not interchange them.
Frequently Asked Questions
Which two schools of art flourished in the Kushan period?
The two great schools of art of the Kushan period were the Gandhara school and the Mathura school. The Gandhara school used grey schist and showed Greco-Buddhist influence, while the Mathura school used spotted red sandstone and a more Indian style.
Which Mauryan pillar capital is the national emblem of India?
The Sarnath Lion Capital, a polished monolithic stone pillar capital of Ashoka, is the national emblem of India. It is one of the finest examples of Mauryan court art.
What are the three styles of Indian temple architecture?
The three main styles of Indian temple architecture are the Nagara style of the north (with a curved shikhara), the Dravida style of the south (with a pyramidal vimana and gopuram) and the Vesara style of the Deccan, which blends both. The Dashavatara temple at Deogarh is an early Nagara example.
Where are the famous ancient Indian paintings found?
The most famous ancient Indian paintings are the Ajanta cave paintings, which show scenes from the Jataka tales and reached their peak in the Gupta period. The Bagh caves also have important paintings.
Who wrote the Abhijnanashakuntalam and who wrote the Arthashastra?
Abhijnanashakuntalam was written by Kalidasa, the greatest Sanskrit poet and dramatist. The Arthashastra, a treatise on statecraft and administration, was written by Kautilya (Chanakya).
Which are the great works of Tamil Sangam literature?
The great works of Tamil Sangam literature include the Tolkappiyam (a work on grammar), the Thirukkural of Thiruvalluvar, and the epics Silappadikaram and Manimekalai. They are among the oldest works of Tamil literature.