History is the study of the human past, and Indian history is normally divided into three broad periods: ancient, medieval and modern. For competitive exams, it is equally important to know the sources from which this history is reconstructed, because questions are regularly asked about inscriptions, coins and foreign accounts.

The main sources of ancient Indian history are: (1) Literary sources — the Vedas, the Epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata), the Puranas, Buddhist and Jain texts, and secular works such as Kautilya's Arthashastra and the plays of Kalidasa; (2) Archaeological sources — inscriptions or epigraphs (such as the Ashokan edicts), coins (numismatics), monuments, sculpture and pottery; (3) Foreign accounts — the writings of Greek visitors like Megasthenes, the Chinese pilgrims Fa-hien (Faxian), Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang) and I-tsing, and later Arab and European travellers.

In the Stone Age, humans used only stone tools and did not know the use of metals. It is divided into three main stages:

• The Palaeolithic (Old Stone) Age, roughly 2.5 million to 10,000 BC, when early humans were food-gatherers and hunters. Important Indian sites include Attirampakkam in Tamil Nadu, and Bhimbetka in central India (famous for its rock paintings). Bori in Maharashtra is reported to be one of the oldest Palaeolithic sites in India. During this age early man made crude hand-axes, choppers and cleavers.

• The Mesolithic (Middle Stone) Age, about 10,000–6,000 BC, saw the use of microliths (very small stone tools). The climate became warmer and people began to domesticate animals. Bhimbetka, Bagor in Rajasthan and Adamgarh are important sites; the richest Mesolithic site in India is Bagor.

• The Neolithic (New Stone) Age, around 6,000–1,000 BC, was a revolutionary period, because humans learnt agriculture, domestication of cattle, pottery-making and the polishing of stone tools. Important sites include Mehrgarh in present-day Pakistan (the earliest known village), Burzahom in Kashmir (famous for pit-dwellings), Chirand in Bihar and Daojali Hading in Assam. Daojali Hading, in the Dima Hasao (North Cachar) hills of Assam, has yielded polished stone axes and should be remembered specially for Assam examinations.

The Chalcolithic (Copper-Stone) Age followed, when copper was used alongside stone. The largest Chalcolithic culture was the Jorwe culture of Maharashtra (site Daimabad, famous for bronze figures), and the most famous Chalcolithic site in India is Ahar in Rajasthan. The great Indus Valley Civilisation grew out of this background.

Key points to remember:

• Ancient Indian history is reconstructed from literary, archaeological and foreign sources.
• Inscriptions are the most reliable source; Megasthenes wrote the Indica.
• The Stone Age is divided into Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic and Chalcolithic phases.
• Attirampakkam and Bhimbetka are famous Palaeolithic sites; Bhimbetka is known for its rock paintings.
• Bagor is the richest Mesolithic site in India; microliths were the special tools of this age.
• Mehrgarh, Burzahom, Chirand and Daojali Hading are key Neolithic sites; Daojali Hading is in Assam.
• The Jorwe culture (Daimabad) is the largest Chalcolithic culture; Ahar is the most famous Chalcolithic site.

The Indus Valley Civilisation, also called the Harappan Civilisation after its first discovered site Harappa, is the oldest urban civilisation of India. It belongs to the Bronze Age and flourished roughly between 2500 BC and 1750 BC (the Mature Harappan phase), though its early and late phases began earlier and ended later. It extended from Sutkagendor in the west (Baluchistan) to Alamgirpur in the east (Uttar Pradesh), and from Manda in Jammu in the north to Daimabad in Maharashtra in the south.

The civilisation was discovered when the remains of Harappa were noticed in 1921 by Dayaram Sahni, and Mohenjo-daro was excavated in 1922 by R.D. Banerji. John Marshall, the then Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India, announced the discovery. The most important sites to remember are: Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan), Mohenjo-daro (Sindh, the 'mound of the dead'), Chanhu-daro and Lothal (Gujarat — famous for its dockyard and bead factory), Kalibangan (Rajasthan — famous for the ploughed field), Banawali (Haryana), Dholavira (Gujarat — famous for its water reservoirs and unique stone statue), Rakhigarhi (Haryana, the largest site in India), and Surkotada. Lothal also gives evidence of the earliest known dockyard; the Harappans carried on sea trade with Mesopotamia (Meluhha).

Town planning is the greatest achievement of the Harappans. Cities were built on a grid pattern with straight roads crossing at right angles, and there was a well-planned drainage system — the best in the ancient world. Every city had a citadel (the raised western part, where public buildings stood) and a lower town (where common people lived). The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro, the Granary, and the Assembly Hall were important public buildings.

Society and economy: the Harappans were the first to grow cotton and to weave cotton cloth; they domesticated animals like the humped bull (zebu), and knew the elephant, the rhinoceros and the tiger. Their script was pictographic and is still undeciphered — it was written from right to left. They used weights and measures based on the ratio 16 (like 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64...). Their seals, mostly made of steatite, are the most famous artefacts; the most common animal on the seals is the unicorn. The famous bronze 'dancing girl' of Mohenjo-daro and the steatite 'priest-king' are masterpieces of art. The people worshipped the Mother Goddess and possibly a proto-Shiva (Pashupati) shown on a seal seated in yogic posture. The Harappans were peace-loving; no weapons of war or large palaces of kings have been found.

Decline: the civilisation declined around 1750–1500 BC. The main suggested causes are floods, ecological change, drying up of rivers and possibly foreign invasion, but the actual cause is still debated. Unlike Egypt or Mesopotamia, no pyramids or temples were built here, and no iron was used by the Harappans.

Key points to remember:

• The Indus Valley Civilisation was an urban, Bronze Age civilisation of 2500–1750 BC.
• Harappa was discovered in 1921 by Dayaram Sahni; Mohenjo-daro was excavated in 1922 by R.D. Banerji.
• Dholavira and Rakhigarhi are the largest sites; Dholavira is famous for water reservoirs and the only stone statue of the civilisation.
• Lothal in Gujarat had the earliest dockyard; Kalibangan gives evidence of the earliest ploughed field.
• Town planning and the drainage system were the finest achievements; the Great Bath was at Mohenjo-daro.
• The script was pictographic and undeciphered, written right to left; seals were mostly of steatite.
• The most common seal animal is the unicorn; the dancing girl and priest-king are famous art pieces.
• The Harappans were the first to grow cotton; they were a peaceful, trade-loving people.

The Vedic Age is named after the Vedas, the oldest sacred literature of India, composed in Sanskrit. It is divided into two periods: the Early Vedic (Rigvedic) period, roughly 1500–1000 BC, and the Later Vedic period, roughly 1000–600 BC. The Vedas are four: the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda. The Rigveda is the oldest, and its hymns were composed in the Sapta-Sindhu region (the land of the seven rivers, i.e. the north-west including the Indus). The Aryans who composed the Rigveda were mainly pastoral people who came in waves into India through the passes of the north-west.

Early Vedic society was tribal and egalitarian. The basic unit was the family (kula), and its head was the grihapati. Several families formed a grama (village), larger units were the vis and the jana (tribe). The tribe was ruled by the rajan or king, who was helped by the purohita (priest), the senani (army chief) and assemblies called the sabha and the samiti. In the Rigveda, the most important god was Indra, the god of thunder and war (called Purandara, the destroyer of forts), and Agni, the fire-god and priest of the gods, comes next; Varuna was the god of cosmic order (rita). People worshipped Nature, and the popular term for god was 'deva'. The cow was the most valued animal; 'gavishthi' (search for cows) was the word used for war. The famous Rigvedic hymn of creation is in the tenth mandala, where the Purusha-sukta appears — this hymn for the first time mentions the four varnas (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra).

In the Later Vedic period the Aryans moved eastwards into the Gangetic plains (the land of the Kuru-Panchala and Kosala-Videha). Agriculture became the main occupation, iron came into use, and new gods such as Prajapati (Brahma), Rudra-Shiva and Vishnu became important. The caste system became rigid, and the varna divisions were linked to birth. Great kingdoms grew, and yajnas or sacrifices (like the Rajasuya, Vajapeya and Ashvamedha) became elaborate. The Brihadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads belong to this period and contain early philosophical speculation about Brahman and Atman. This age also saw the composition of the later Vedic texts — the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the early Upanishads, and the Satapatha Brahmana records the story of Videgha Madhava and the eastward spread of Aryan culture. Towards the end of the Later Vedic age the janapadas (territorial states) began to take shape.

Key points to remember:

• The Vedas are four: Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda; the Rigveda is the oldest.
• The Early Vedic period (1500–1000 BC) was in the Sapta-Sindhu region; people were pastoral.
• Indra was the chief god of the Rigveda; Agni comes next; Varuna was the god of moral order.
• The Purusha-sukta in the tenth mandala of the Rigveda mentions the four varnas.
• The sabha and samiti were the tribal assemblies of the Early Vedic age.
• In the Later Vedic period (1000–600 BC) the Aryans moved to the Gangetic plains and used iron.
• Agriculture, elaborate sacrifices and the rigid caste system developed in the Later Vedic age.
• The Upanishads discuss Brahman and Atman; the Vedic literature ends with the Upanishads.

By the sixth century BC, India entered the age of the Mahajanapadas — sixteen great territorial states mentioned in Buddhist and Jain texts. The most important of them were Magadha (south Bihar), Kosala (eastern Uttar Pradesh), Vatsa (Allahabad region, capital Kaushambi), Avanti (Malwa, capital Ujjayini), Anga (eastern Bihar), Kashi (Varanasi) and the republican states of the Vajji confederacy (capital Vaishali) and the Mallas. Most of these were monarchies, but Vajji and Malla were oligarchies or republics (ganasanghas). The sixteen states are remembered by the list that begins with Anga, Magadha, Kashi, Kosala, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Shurasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara and Kambhoja.

Magadha emerged as the most powerful state and finally absorbed the others. Its greatness was due to its strategic location with fertile soil, easy access to iron ores, and powerful rulers. The Haryanka dynasty produced Bimbisara, a contemporary of the Buddha, who strengthened the state; his son Ajatashatru built the fort at Pataliputra and defeated the Vajjis. The Shishunaga and then the Nanda dynasty followed. The Nandas, with their capital at Pataliputra, were very wealthy; the last Nanda king Dhana Nanda was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya. Because Magadha grew into an empire, the whole period is described as the 'Age of the Second Urbanisation', when coins (punch-marked), trade and towns flourished in the Gangetic plains.

This was also the age of the two great religious reformers: Vardhamana Mahavira and Gautama Buddha.

Jainism: Mahavira, the twenty-fourth and last Tirthankara, was born at Kundagrama near Vaishali around 540 BC. He left home at thirty and attained kevala-jnana (perfect knowledge) after twelve years of penance. Jainism rejects the authority of the Vedas. Its three jewels (ratnatraya) are right faith, right knowledge and right conduct. Mahavira preached ahimsa (non-violence) so strictly that even the smallest creature must not be hurt; he also preached satya, asteya (non-stealing) and aparigraha (non-possession). The first Tirthankara was Rishabhanatha. After Mahavira the Jain community split into the Digambaras (sky-clad, chiefly in the south) and the Svetambaras (white-clad). Jain literature is composed in Prakrit (Ardhamagadhi); the first Jain council was held at Pataliputra.

Buddhism: Gautama Buddha was born as Siddhartha in 563 BC in Lumbini (Nepal). His father was Suddhodana of the Shakya clan of Kapilavastu. He left home at the age of twenty-nine (the Great Renunciation) and attained Nirvana at Bodh Gaya at the age of thirty-five. He gave his first sermon (Dharma-chakra-pravartana) at Sarnath near Varanasi to his first five disciples, and died (mahaparinirvana) at Kushinagar in 483 BC. Buddhism also rejects the authority of the Vedas. The Buddha taught the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path (the Middle Path), and laid emphasis on conduct and the Eightfold Path rather than on ritual. The first Buddhist council was held at Rajagriha, the second at Vaishali, the third at Pataliputra under Ashoka, and the fourth in Kashmir under Kanishka.

Key points to remember:

• There were sixteen Mahajanapadas; Magadha, Kosala, Avanti, Vatsa and Vajji were the most important.
• Vaishali was the capital of the Vajji republic; Avanti's capital was Ujjayini.
• Magadha rose to power under Bimbisara (Haryanka dynasty) and its capital became Pataliputra.
• Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara; Jainism's three jewels are right faith, knowledge and conduct.
• Mahavira stressed ahimsa, satya, asteya and aparigraha; the first Tirthankara was Rishabhanatha.
• The Buddha was born in 563 BC at Lumbini and attained Nirvana at Bodh Gaya.
• Buddha's first sermon was at Sarnath; he died at Kushinagar in 483 BC.
• Four Buddhist councils were held at Rajagriha, Vaishali, Pataliputra and Kashmir.

Before the rise of the Mauryas, two foreign invasions touched north-west India. In about 518 BC the Persian emperor Darius I (of the Achaemenid empire) annexed the Indus region as the twentieth satrapy of his empire. Persian rule introduced the Kharoshthi script and some administrative ideas. In 326 BC Alexander of Macedonia crossed the Indus and defeated the local king Porus at the Battle of Hydaspes (on the Jhelum). His march was stopped by his own soldiers on the Beas, and he returned; his invasion opened India's land route to the west but caused political chaos in the north-west, which made the foundation of a strong Indian empire possible.

The Maurya empire was the first great historical empire of India. Its founder was Chandragupta Maurya (c. 321–297 BC), who, with the guidance of his minister Kautilya (Chanakya or Vishnugupta, the author of the Arthashastra), overthrew the Nandas and then defeated Seleucus Nicator, the Greek general, around 305 BC. A treaty was signed and Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador, came to the Mauryan court and wrote the famous book 'Indica'. Chandragupta's empire extended from Afghanistan in the west to Bengal in the east. He was the first ruler to unify most of India. According to Jain tradition, he became a Jain monk and died at Shravana Belgola in Karnataka.

Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara, called Amitraghata (the slayer of foes), who extended the empire to the south. The greatest Mauryan king was Ashoka (c. 268–232 BC), the son of Bindusara. Ashoka fought the Kalinga war (c. 261 BC) in the eighth year of his reign. The terrible bloodshed of Kalinga changed his heart, and he embraced Buddhism. He is remembered for his policy of Dhamma (righteousness), and he spread his message through the famous Rock Edicts and Pillar Edicts written in the Brahmi script and Prakrit language. Ashoka appointed special officers called Dhamma-mahamattas to spread Dhamma, built hospitals for men and animals, planted trees on the roads, and sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka to spread Buddhism. The Lion Capital of his Sarnath pillar is the national emblem of India. He also held the third Buddhist council at Pataliputra. The last Mauryan king was Brihadratha, who was killed by his own commander-in-chief Pushyamitra Shunga in about 185 BC.

The Mauryan administration was highly centralised. The king was supreme; there were six boards of officers looking after industry, trade and other departments. The country was divided into provinces governed by princes or officials. Pataliputra was the capital. During the Mauryan period there were no private property rights in land as understood today, and land revenue (bhaga) was the main source of income.

Key points to remember:

• Darius I annexed the Indus region in 518 BC; Alexander invaded in 326 BC and won the Battle of Hydaspes against Porus.
• Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya empire (c. 321 BC) with the help of Kautilya.
• Chandragupta defeated Seleucus, and Megasthenes wrote the Indica in his court.
• Ashoka fought the Kalinga war in c. 261 BC and then embraced Buddhism and the policy of Dhamma.
• Ashoka's edicts were written in Brahmi script and Prakrit language.
• The Lion Capital of Sarnath is India's national emblem; Ashoka held the third Buddhist council.
• The last Mauryan ruler Brihadratha was killed by Pushyamitra Shunga in c. 185 BC.
• The Mauryan administration was centralised; Pataliputra was the capital and land revenue the main income.

After the decline of the Mauryas (c. 185 BC), India broke up into many kingdoms for about five hundred years. In the north the Shunga dynasty (founded by Pushyamitra Shunga) ruled Magadha; the Shungas were followed by the Kanvas. Meanwhile a succession of foreign rulers entered north-west India — the Indo-Greeks (Bactrian Greeks), the Shakas (Scythians), the Parthians and the Kushanas. The most famous Indo-Greek king was Menander (Milinda), who is believed to have embraced Buddhism and is remembered for the dialogue recorded in the Milindapanho. The greatest Kushana ruler was Kanishka (c. 78 AD), who started the Saka era in 78 AD. He convened the fourth Buddhist council in Kashmir and patronised the Gandhara school of art. During his reign the great Buddhist philosophers Ashvaghosha, Nagarjuna and Vasumitra flourished, and the great physicians Charaka and Sushruta also belong roughly to this age. The Kushana empire had two capitals — Purushapura (Peshawar) and Mathura.

In the Deccan and the south the Satavahanas (Andhras) rose to power. Their founder was Simuka, and the most powerful ruler was Gautamiputra Satakarni, who called himself the destroyer of the Shakas. The Satavahana ruler who issued the largest number of lead coins was Gautamiputra's successors, and their greatest contribution was in the field of trade and commerce; their capital was Pratishthana (Paithan) on the Godavari. They patronised Prakrit and the famous Buddhist caves of western India (like the Karla and Nashik caves) were cut during their rule.

In the far south, Tamilakam (the Tamil land) produced a rich literature called the Sangam literature, composed in the assemblies (sangams) of poets patronised by the Pandya kings at Madurai. The Sangam age is roughly dated from the third century BC to the third century AD. Three crowned monarchies ruled the Tamil land: the Cheras (present-day Kerala, with the emblem of the bow and arrow and the port of Muziris), the Cholas (central Tamil Nadu, with the emblem of the tiger, capital at Uraiyur, and the port of Kaveripattinam/Puhar) and the Pandyas (south Tamil Nadu, with the emblem of the fish, capital at Madurai and the famous port of Korkai). The Sangam poems describe a prosperous society of the Sangam period, with hero worship, the institution of the 'muvendar' (the three kings) and the patronage of poets and bards. Important Sangam epics are the Silappadikaram (by Ilango Adigal) and the Manimekalai. In the Sangam age society was divided into five eco-zones (tinai). The main source for the Sangam age is the Sangam literature and the accounts of Greek geographers like Ptolemy and the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.

Key points to remember:

• After the Mauryas came the Shungas (Pushyamitra), Kanvas, Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Parthians, Kushanas and Satavahanas.
• Menander was the most famous Indo-Greek king; Milindapanho records his dialogue with Nagasena.
• Kanishka started the Saka era (78 AD), held the fourth Buddhist council and patronised Gandhara art.
• The Satavahanas ruled the Deccan; Gautamiputra Satakarni was their greatest ruler.
• Sangam literature belongs to the Tamil land; it was composed under the patronage of the Pandya kings.
• The three Sangam kingdoms were the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas.
• Silappadikaram was written by Ilango Adigal and Manimekalai is another famous Sangam epic.
• Madurai, Uraiyur and Vanji were the capitals of the Pandyas, Cholas and Cheras.

The Gupta empire was founded by Chandragupta I (c. 319–320 AD), who took the title Maharajadhiraja and began the Gupta era in 319–320 AD. His son Samudragupta (c. 335–375 AD) is called the 'Napoleon of India' because of his conquests. The Allahabad Pillar inscription (Prayaga-prashasti), composed by his court poet Harisena, gives a long and reliable account of his conquests — of the rulers of the Ganga valley, of the forest kingdoms and of the rulers of the south who were defeated and then liberated. Samudragupta was also a poet and a musician and is seen playing the veena (lute) on his coins.

His son Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya, c. 375–414 AD) was the greatest Gupta ruler. He conquered western India by defeating the Shakas, and is remembered for the legend of the nine gems (navaratnas) of his court, which included the great poet Kalidasa and the astronomer Varahamihira. His capital was Pataliputra, but Ujjayini became an important cultural centre. The Chinese pilgrim Fa-hien (Faxian) visited India during his reign (c. 399–414 AD) and has left a favourable account of the peace and prosperity of the country.

Kumaragupta I founded the famous Nalanda university, which became the greatest centre of Buddhist learning in Asia. His son Skandagupta successfully repelled the Hunas (the Hephthalite or White Huns), but the Hun invasions weakened the empire, and the Gupta empire gradually declined by the middle of the sixth century. The last important Gupta ruler was Vishnugupta.

The Gupta age is rightly called the 'Golden Age of India'. It saw the highest development of Sanskrit literature — Kalidasa wrote Abhijnana-Shakuntalam, Meghaduta and Raghuvamsha; the Vishakhadatta's Mudrarakshasa, the Panchatantra stories, and the works of Shudraka (Mrichchhakatika) also belong to this age. In science, Aryabhata (born 476 AD) wrote the Aryabhatiya, Varahamihira wrote the Brihat-Samhita, and Sushruta and Charaka represent Ayurveda. The decimal system of notation and the concept of zero developed during this period. The Ajanta cave paintings and the temple architecture of the period reflect great artistic achievement. Vatsyayana wrote the Kamasutra. The land grants to Brahmanas increased during this period, which led to the growth of feudalism in later times.

After the Guptas, north India was ruled for a time by Harshavardhana (606–647 AD) of the Pushyabhuti (Vardhana) dynasty of Thanesar. He united the two kingdoms of Thanesar and Kannauj and made Kannauj his capital. His court poet Banabhatta wrote the Harshacharita and the Kadambari. The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang) visited India during Harsha's reign and has described his court and his assemblies at Prayaga (Allahabad) and Kannauj. Harsha is said to have held a great assembly at Kannauj, and another at Prayaga every five years. Harsha himself wrote three plays: Ratnavali, Priyadarshika and Nagananda. After Harsha's death in 647 AD, north India again split into many kingdoms.

Key points to remember:

• Chandragupta I founded the Gupta empire; the Gupta era began in 319–320 AD.
• Samudragupta is the 'Napoleon of India'; his conquests are recorded in the Allahabad Pillar inscription by Harisena.
• Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) defeated the Shakas; his court had the navaratnas including Kalidasa.
• Fa-hien visited India during the reign of Chandragupta II.
• Kumaragupta I founded Nalanda university; Skandagupta repelled the Hunas.
• The Gupta age is the 'Golden Age' of Sanskrit literature and Indian science; Aryabhata and Varahamihira flourished then.
• Harshavardhana (606–647 AD) ruled with capital at Kannauj; Banabhatta and Hiuen Tsang adorned his court.
• Harsha wrote Ratnavali, Priyadarshika and Nagananda.

Between the seventh and the thirteenth centuries, while north India was divided among many small Rajput and other kingdoms, the south produced three great ruling families that shaped Indian culture — the Pallavas, the Chalukyas and the Cholas, besides the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan.

The Pallavas ruled from Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu (about the sixth to ninth centuries). Their greatest king was Narasimhavarman I, who captured Vatapi and defeated the Chalukyan king Pulakesin II, and was therefore given the title Vatapikonda. Mahendravarman I was a great patron of art — he built the rock-cut temples at Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram). The Pallavas were the pioneers of Dravidian temple architecture; the Shore Temple and the rathas at Mahabalipuram and the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram are their masterpieces. It was in Pallava times that the famous Greek astronomer's idea reached India; Hiuen Tsang visited Kanchipuram during this period.

The Chalukyas of Badami (Vatapi) ruled in Karnataka. Their greatest king, Pulakesin II (c. 610–642 AD), defeated Harshavardhana on the banks of the Narmada, and stopped his southern advance. Pulakesin II received the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang. The Chalukyas built fine cave temples at Badami and the famous Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal. The later Chalukyas of Kalyani and the Rashtrakutas succeeded them. The Rashtrakutas, with their capital at Manyakheta, were powerful in the Deccan; their greatest ruler was Amoghavarsha I, who was a Jain and wrote the Kavirajamarga, the earliest Kannada work on poetics. The rock-cut Kailasa temple at Ellora was built by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I.

The Cholas of Tanjore were the most powerful of all. Vijayalaya captured Tanjore in 850 AD and founded the Chola empire. Rajaraja I (985–1014 AD) and his son Rajendra I (1014–1044 AD) raised the Chola power to its highest. Rajaraja built the great Brihadeshwara (Rajarajeshwara) temple at Thanjavur. Rajendra I conquered Sri Lanka, the Maldives and even raided the Ganga valley and South-East Asia; he founded a new capital called Gangaikonda-Cholapuram. The Cholas had a powerful navy and carried on trade with South-East Asia. The Chola village administration is famous for the system of local self-government recorded in the Uttaramallur inscription — the village assemblies were called ur, sabha and nagaram, and members were chosen by a method of selection (lottery) known as kudavolai. The Cholas also built temples at Darasuram and the great temple of Gangaikonda-Cholapuram. Nalanda and the other universities of north India were partly burnt during Rajendra I's raids. The Chola age also saw the compilation of great Tamil works and the bronze statues of Nataraja (dancing Shiva).

Key points to remember:

• The Pallavas ruled from Kanchipuram; Narasimhavarman I took the title Vatapikonda after defeating the Chalukyas.
• The Pallavas pioneered Dravidian temple architecture — the Shore Temple and rathas at Mahabalipuram.
• Pulakesin II of the Chalukyas defeated Harshavardhana on the Narmada.
• The Rashtrakuta king Krishna I built the Kailasa rock-cut temple at Ellora.
• Vijayalaya founded the Chola empire by capturing Tanjore in 850 AD.
• Rajaraja I built the Brihadeshwara temple at Thanjavur.
• Rajendra I founded Gangaikonda-Cholapuram and had a powerful navy.
• The Chola village assemblies (ur, sabha, nagaram) used the kudavolai system of choosing members.

The Delhi Sultanate was the first great Muslim kingdom of India, established after the Turkish invasions of Muhammad Ghori. The Ghurid general Qutb-ud-din Aibak, a former slave of Muhammad Ghori, founded the Sultanate in 1206 and is regarded as the founder of the Slave (Mamluk) dynasty. The Sultanate is divided into five ruling dynasties: the Slave dynasty (1206–1290), the Khalji dynasty (1290–1320), the Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1414), the Sayyid dynasty (1414–1451) and the Lodi dynasty (1451–1526).

The Slave dynasty: Qutb-ud-din Aibak, called 'Lakh Baksh' (giver of lakhs) for his generosity, began the construction of the Qutb Minar and the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in Delhi. His successor Iltutmish (1211–1236) is considered the real consolidator of the Sultanate; he shifted the capital to Delhi, completed the Qutb Minar, introduced the silver tanka and copper jital coins, and organised the famous group of forty nobles called the Chahalgani (Turkan-i-Chihalgani). Razia Sultan (1236–1240), the daughter of Iltutmish, was the first and only woman ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. Balban (1266–1287) believed in the divine right of kings, introduced the Persian ceremony of sijda (prostration) and paibos (kissing the royal feet), and took the title Zil-i-Ilahi (shadow of God).

The Khalji dynasty: Alauddin Khalji (1296–1316) was the greatest ruler of the Sultanate after Balban. He conquered Gujarat, Ranthambhor and the Deccan kingdom of Devagiri, and his general Malik Kafur marched to the far south up to Madurai. Alauddin introduced market control (price regulation), a revenue system measuring land (Hindu measure called 'Gaz-i-Sikandari' was later used by others), and took measures to check revolts of the nobles. He took the title 'Sikandar-i-Sani' (the second Alexander).

The Tughlaq dynasty: Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–1351) is famous for his ambitious but failed projects — the transfer of the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (Devagiri), the introduction of token copper currency (which failed), and the proposed conquest of Khurasan. The historian Ibn Battuta visited his court. Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388) abolished many taxes, built canals, gardens and cities, and is remembered for his charitable works. Timur's invasion of India in 1398 dealt a death blow to the Sultanate. The Sayyids were a weak dynasty founded by Khizr Khan. The Lodis were Afghans; the last ruler Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by Babur in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526, ending the Sultanate.

Administration: the Sultan was the head of the state; he was also the commander of the army. The important departments were Diwan-i-Wizarat (finance), Diwan-i-Arz (army, reorganised by Balban), Diwan-i-Risalat (religious affairs) and Diwan-i-Insha (correspondence). Alauddin Khalji created the Diwan-i-Mustakharaj. Revenue was collected as land tax (kharaj), and there were taxes like jizya on non-Muslims. The Sultanate was a centralised state; the ulema had influence but the Sultan's word was final. The Sultanate period also saw the birth of the Indo-Islamic style of architecture (Qutb Minar, Alai Darwaza, Tughlaqabad fort) and the growth of Urdu from the interaction of Arabic, Persian and local languages.

Key points to remember:

• Qutb-ud-din Aibak founded the Delhi Sultanate in 1206; he began the Qutb Minar.
• Iltutmish is the real consolidator; he introduced the tanka and jital and completed the Qutb Minar.
• Razia Sultan was the first and only woman ruler of the Sultanate.
• Balban believed in the divine right of kings and took the title Zil-i-Ilahi.
• Alauddin Khalji introduced market control; Malik Kafur raided the far south.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq's three famous projects — capital transfer, token currency, Khurasan expedition — all failed.
• Firoz Shah Tughlaq built canals and cities and abolished many taxes.
• The Sultanate ended when Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat in 1526.

In the fourteenth century two powerful kingdoms arose in the Deccan — the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagara and the Muslim kingdom of Bahmani. They fought each other again and again for the control of the Raichur doab and for supremacy.

Vijayanagara ('the city of victory') was founded in 1336 by two brothers, Harihara I and Bukka I, sons of Sangama. They were ministers of the Kampili kingdom and later became rulers of the new state. Vijayanagara had four successive dynasties: the Sangama (1336–1485), the Saluva (1485–1505), the Tuluva (1505–1570) and the Aravidu (1570–1646). The greatest ruler was Krishna Deva Raya of the Tuluva dynasty (1509–1529). He defeated the Bahmani sultan and the Gajapati king of Odisha, and is remembered as a great patron of literature — Telugu literature reached its height in his court, and the 'Ashtadiggajas' (eight poets) flourished, of whom Tenali Ramakrishna and Allasani Peddana are famous. Krishna Deva Raya himself wrote the Telugu work Amuktamalyada.

The empire was divided into provinces governed by governors (often members of the royal family) called nayaks. The capital city of Vijayanagara, with its centre at Hampi on the banks of the Tungabhadra, was admired by foreign travellers — the Italian Nicolo de Conti, the Persian Abdur Razzaq, the Portuguese Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz have left glowing accounts of its wealth and beauty. The Vijayanagara rulers followed the tradition of earlier Hindu kings: they respected all religions, and the famous Virupaksha temple and the Vithala temple at Hampi survive as masterpieces. The empire declined after the Battle of Talikota (also called Rakshasi-Tangadi) in 1565, in which the combined armies of the Deccan sultanates defeated the Vijayanagara forces; the city was looted. The Aravidu dynasty continued in the south for some time, but the glory of Vijayanagara was over.

The Bahmani kingdom was founded in 1347 by Hasan Gangu, who took the title Alauddin Bahman Shah. Its capital was at Gulbarga and later at Bidar. The Bahmani sultans were patrons of Persian culture. The kingdom was divided into provinces governed by governors called tarafdars. The greatest Bahmani ruler was Mahmud Gawan, the minister who raised the kingdom to its height, but he was executed by the sultan. After his death the kingdom broke up in 1518 into five independent states — the Adil Shahis of Bijapur, the Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar, the Qutb Shahis of Golconda, the Imad Shahis of Berar and the Barid Shahis of Bidar. These five states are together called the Deccan Sultanates. The Qutb Shahis of Golconda were great patrons of the Telugu and Persian languages. These Deccan sultanates, in alliance, defeated Vijayanagara at Talikota in 1565.

Key points to remember:

• Harihara I and Bukka I founded Vijayanagara in 1336; its capital was Hampi on the Tungabhadra.
• The four Vijayanagara dynasties were Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu.
• Krishna Deva Raya (1509–1529) was the greatest Vijayanagara ruler and a patron of Telugu literature.
• The Ashtadiggajas were eight Telugu poets of Krishna Deva Raya's court.
• Vijayanagara was defeated by the Deccan sultanates at the Battle of Talikota in 1565.
• The Bahmani kingdom was founded by Hasan Gangu (Alauddin Bahman Shah) in 1347.
• Mahmud Gawan was the greatest Bahmani minister; after his death the kingdom split in 1518 into five states.
• The five Deccan Sultanates were Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golconda, Berar and Bidar.

Between the eighth and the seventeenth centuries two great religious movements spread across India — the Bhakti movement, which grew within Hinduism, and the Sufi movement, which grew within Islam. Both emphasised love of God, equality of all human beings, and rejected empty ritual and priestly dominance.

The Bhakti movement began in the Tamil country with the Alvars (devotees of Vishnu) and the Nayanars (devotees of Shiva), whose hymns are collected in the Divya Prabandham and the Tevaram. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the movement was revitalised in Maharashtra by the saint-poets of the Varkari tradition, of whom the greatest were Jnanadeva (Gyaneshwar, author of the Jnaneshwari, a commentary on the Gita), Namadeva and Tukaram. The great saint of Karnataka was Basavanna, the founder of the Virashaiva or Lingayat sect, who opposed caste and the worship of idols.

The Bhakti movement reached its highest expression in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries through the great saints of North India. Kabir (fifteenth century), a weaver of Varanasi, preached the unity of God and rejected both Hindu and Muslim orthodoxy; his verses are collected in the Bijak. Guru Nanak (1469–1539) founded Sikhism — he preached the unity of God (Ek Onkar), equality, and the importance of nam-simran (remembering God's name). Mirabai, a Rajput princess of Mewar, was a great devotee of Krishna. Surdas sang of the childhood of Krishna in his Sur Sagar, and Tulsidas wrote the Ramcharitmanas, the Hindi version of the Ramayana. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu of Bengal (fifteenth–sixteenth centuries) spread the devotional worship of Krishna and Radha through kirtana (devotional singing). In Assam, the same movement found its unique expression in Srimanta Sankardeva's neo-Vaishnavite movement, which is treated in the Assam history volume.

The Sufi movement: Sufism was the mystical movement of Islam that reached India with the Turks. The Sufi saints were called fakirs or darveshes; they were organised into orders (silsilas). The most important Sufi order of India was the Chishti order, whose great saints were Khwaja Muin-ud-din Chishti (buried at Ajmer), Khwaja Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki (Delhi), Baba Farid (Pakpattan) and the greatest of all, Nizam-ud-din Auliya (Delhi), whose disciple was the poet Amir Khusrau. The Chishti saints believed in love and service to humanity and opposed the state's interference in religion. Other important orders were the Suhrawardi, the Naqshbandi (brought to India by Khwaja Baqi Billah) and the Qadiri order. The Sufis contributed to Indian culture through music (qawwali), poetry and the message of harmony.

Key points to remember:

• The Bhakti movement began in Tamil Nadu with the Alvars and Nayanars.
• Jnanadeva, Namadeva and Tukaram were Maharashtra's great Bhakti saints; Basavanna founded the Lingayats.
• Kabir preached the unity of God; his verses are in the Bijak.
• Guru Nanak founded Sikhism; he preached Ek Onkar and equality.
• Surdas, Tulsidas, Mirabai and Chaitanya were the great Bhakti saints of North and East India.
• Tulsidas wrote the Ramcharitmanas; Surdas wrote the Sur Sagar.
• The Chishti order is the most important Sufi order in India; its greatest saint was Nizam-ud-din Auliya.
• Muin-ud-din Chishti is buried at Ajmer; Amir Khusrau was a disciple of Nizam-ud-din Auliya.

The Mughal empire was the greatest and most powerful empire of medieval India. It was founded by Babur, a prince of Ferghana (Central Asia), who defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 and Rana Sanga of Mewar at the Battle of Khanwa in 1527. Babur wrote his autobiography, the Baburnama, in Turkish (Chagatai). His son Humayun lost the empire to Sher Shah Suri but regained it later.

The empire was really consolidated by Akbar (1556–1605), the greatest Mughal emperor. He defeated Hemu at the Second Battle of Panipat in 1556. Akbar established a centralised administration, introduced the mansabdari system for organising the army and nobility, and created a new religion called Din-i-Ilahi to unite different communities (though it remained limited to the court). He abolished the jizya tax on non-Muslims, and his policy of sulh-i-kul (peace with all) and religious tolerance made him beloved of all sections. He married Rajput princesses and gave high posts to Rajputs like Raja Man Singh and Bhagwan Das. His court had the Navaratnas (nine gems), including the musician Tansen, the minister Birbal, the poet Faizi and his great minister and historian Abul Fazl, who wrote the Akbarnama and the Ain-i-Akbari. Akbar built a new capital at Fatehpur Sikri and patronised the new Mughal style of painting.

Jahangir (1605–1627) was fond of painting and natural history; he wrote his memoirs, the Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri. His wife Nur Jahan became very powerful. Shah Jahan (1628–1658) is remembered as the greatest builder of the Mughals — he built the Taj Mahal at Agra (in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal), the Red Fort and the Jama Masjid in Delhi, and the Peacock Throne. The French traveller Bernier and the Italian Manucci visited his court.

Aurangzeb (1658–1707), the last of the great Mughals, extended the empire to its greatest territorial limit by conquering Bijapur, Golconda and the Deccan states. But he reversed Akbar's tolerant policy — he re-imposed the jizya and destroyed temples, alienated the Rajputs and Sikhs, and fought long wars in the Deccan. His reign saw the rise of the Marathas under Shivaji, and after his death in 1707 the empire declined rapidly. The later Mughals were weak, and the empire formally ended when the last emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was deposed by the British after the Revolt of 1857.

Key points to remember:

• Babur founded the Mughal empire by defeating Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat in 1526.
• Akbar defeated Hemu at the Second Battle of Panipat (1556) and introduced the mansabdari system.
• Akbar abolished the jizya and followed the policy of sulh-i-kul and religious tolerance.
• Akbar's court had the Navaratnas, including Tansen, Birbal, Faizi and Abul Fazl.
• Abul Fazl wrote the Akbarnama and the Ain-i-Akbari.
• Jahangir wrote the Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri; Nur Jahan was his powerful wife.
• Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort and the Jama Masjid.
• Aurangzeb extended the empire furthest but re-imposed the jizya; after his death (1707) the empire declined.

The Marathas were the greatest Hindu power that rose in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to fill the vacuum created by the decline of the Mughals. The founder of Maratha power was Shivaji (1627–1680), born at Shivner fort near Pune. He began his career of conquest from the fort of Torna and built a chain of forts in the Western Ghats. He fought against the Adil Shahi sultan of Bijapur (killing the general Afzal Khan) and against the Mughals. In 1674 Shivaji was crowned at Raigad with the title Chhatrapati. He established a sound administration and a powerful navy, and his council of eight ministers was called the Ashta Pradhan. His spy system was very efficient. He is remembered as a great hero of Hindu resistance and as the founder of the Maratha nation.

After Shivaji, the Maratha power was consolidated by the Peshwas (prime ministers) of the Bhat family. Balaji Vishwanath, the first Peshwa, was followed by his son Baji Rao I (1720–1740), the greatest Peshwa, who carried the Maratha arms to the north and captured Malwa and Bundelkhand. His son Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Sahib) was the third Peshwa. The Battle of Panipat (Third Battle of Panipat) in 1761, in which the Marathas were defeated by Ahmad Shah Abdali of Afghanistan, broke the Maratha power. However, under the later Peshwas the Marathas recovered and became the leading power of India till the British defeated them in the Anglo-Maratha wars. The last Peshwa Baji Rao II was pensioned off by the British in 1818.

The later Mughals (1707–1857) were weak emperors who ruled only in name. Real power passed into the hands of their nobles, and many provinces became independent — Bengal under Murshid Quli Khan, Awadh under Saadat Khan, Hyderabad under Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah. These provincial kingdoms later became the prey of the British.

The Sikhs also rose in the Punjab in the eighteenth century. The tenth and last Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, founded the Khalsa in 1699 and gave the Sikhs a militant organisation. After him the Sikhs were led by Banda Bahadur, then by the misls (confederacies), and finally by Ranjit Singh, who founded a powerful Sikh kingdom with its capital at Lahore. The Sikh kingdom was annexed by the British after the Anglo-Sikh wars.

Key points to remember:

• Shivaji (1627–1680) founded Maratha power; he was crowned Chhatrapati at Raigad in 1674.
• Shivaji's council of ministers was the Ashta Pradhan; he built a strong navy and forts.
• Baji Rao I (1720–1740) was the greatest Peshwa who carried Maratha power to northern India.
• The Third Battle of Panipat (1761) broke the Marathas; Ahmad Shah Abdali defeated them.
• The last Peshwa Baji Rao II was pensioned in 1818 after the Anglo-Maratha wars.
• After the Mughals, Bengal, Awadh and Hyderabad became independent under their governors.
• Guru Gobind Singh founded the Khalsa in 1699.
• Ranjit Singh founded a powerful Sikh kingdom with its capital at Lahore.

The end of the fifteenth century brought the Europeans to India in search of spices and trade. The Portuguese were the first to come. Vasco da Gama reached the port of Calicut (Kozhikode) on the Malabar coast on 20 May 1498, with the help of a Gujarati pilot named Abdul Majid. This opened the sea route from Europe to India. The Portuguese were followed by the Dutch, the English and the French, who all came for trade and founded their trading companies.

The Portuguese: Alfonso de Albuquerque (1509–1515) was the real founder of the Portuguese empire in India. He captured Goa in 1510 from the Bijapur sultan and made it the capital of the Portuguese possessions. The Portuguese established settlements at Goa, Daman, Diu, Cochin and Bassein, and controlled the sea trade of the western coast. With the coming of the Dutch and the English their power declined, and finally the Indian government took over Goa in 1961.

The Dutch: The Dutch East India Company was founded in 1602. The Dutch set up their first factory at Masulipatnam in 1605. They later concentrated on the spice trade of the East Indies (Indonesia) and neglected India. They were finally defeated by the English in the Battle of Bedara in 1759.

The English: The English East India Company was founded in 1600. Captain William Hawkins came to the court of Jahangir in 1608 but failed. In 1615 Sir Thomas Roe obtained a farman (imperial order) from Jahangir permitting the Company to trade and to establish factories. The English set up their first factory at Surat in 1613. They later founded the city of Madras (1639), Bombay (acquired in 1668 as dowry from the Portuguese through the marriage of Charles II to Catherine of Braganza) and Calcutta (1690, by Job Charnock). Over the next two centuries this trading company turned into the ruler of India.

The French: The French East India Company was founded in 1664 under Colbert. The French set up their first factory at Surat in 1668 and later at Pondicherry (1674), which became their chief settlement. The great French governor Joseph Francois Dupleix (1742–1754) introduced the policy of mixing in the quarrels of Indian princes and of recruiting Indian soldiers (sepoys) trained in European methods — a system copied later by the English under Robert Clive. The rivalry of the English and French was decided in the Carnatic Wars; the English victory at Wandiwash (1760) put an end to French ambitions in India, and the Treaty of Paris (1763) left the English supreme.

Key points to remember:

• Vasco da Gama reached Calicut on 20 May 1498; this opened the sea route to India.
• Albuquerque captured Goa in 1510 and made it the Portuguese capital.
• The Portuguese settlements included Goa, Daman, Diu, Cochin and Bassein.
• The Dutch East India Company was founded in 1602; their first factory was at Masulipatnam.
• The English East India Company was founded in 1600; Sir Thomas Roe got a farman from Jahangir in 1615.
• The English founded Madras (1639), Bombay (1668) and Calcutta (1690).
• The French East India Company was founded in 1664; Pondicherry was their chief settlement.
• Dupleix introduced the policy of mixing in Indian politics; the English beat the French at Wandiwash in 1760.

The British conquest of India is the story of how a trading company slowly became the ruler of a vast country. The two decisive early battles were fought in Bengal. In 1756 Siraj-ud-daulah, the Nawab of Bengal, captured the English factory at Calcutta, and the English prisoners were confined in a small room — the famous (or infamous) 'Black Hole' incident. Robert Clive, with the help of the traitor Mir Jafar, defeated Siraj-ud-daulah at the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Clive made Mir Jafar the Nawab and received the zamindari of the 24 Parganas. The Battle of Plassey is regarded as the real beginning of British rule in India. In 1764 the combined forces of the Nawab of Bengal Mir Qasim, the Nawab of Awadh Shuja-ud-daulah and the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II were defeated by Major Hector Munro at the Battle of Buxar. After Buxar, the Treaty of Allahabad (1765) gave the Diwani (right to collect revenue) of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the Company.

The British then used two methods to control Indian states — the Subsidiary Alliance (introduced by Lord Wellesley, 1798) and the Doctrine of Lapse (introduced by Lord Dalhousie, 1848). Under the Subsidiary Alliance, an Indian ruler had to keep British troops in his state and pay for them; the first to accept it was the Nizam of Hyderabad. Under the Doctrine of Lapse, states without a natural (adopted) heir lapsed to the Company; Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur and Awadh were annexed by this doctrine.

The British also fought a series of wars against the other great powers:

• The four Anglo-Mysore Wars ended with the death of Tipu Sultan at Seringapatam in 1799, and Mysore came under the British.
• The three Anglo-Maratha Wars broke the Maratha power; in the third war (1817–1818) the last Peshwa Baji Rao II surrendered.
• The two Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845–46 and 1848–49) led to the annexation of the Punjab after the battles of Mudki, Ferozeshah, Aliwal and Sobraon, and of Chillianwala and Gujarat.
• The Gurkha war (1814–16) and the annexation of Assam in 1826 (by the Treaty of Yandabo) extended the British empire to the north-east. Sindh was annexed in 1843 by Charles Napier.

By 1856 the whole of India had passed under British rule or paramountcy. The remaining large state, Awadh, was annexed in 1856, and this annexation became one of the immediate causes of the Revolt of 1857.

Key points to remember:

• The Battle of Plassey (1757) — Clive defeated Siraj-ud-daulah with the help of Mir Jafar.
• The Battle of Buxar (1764) — Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-daulah and Shah Alam II were defeated.
• The Treaty of Allahabad (1765) gave the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the Company.
• The Subsidiary Alliance was introduced by Lord Wellesley; the first to accept it was Hyderabad.
• The Doctrine of Lapse was introduced by Lord Dalhousie; Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur and Awadh were annexed.
• Tipu Sultan died at Seringapatam in 1799 in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War.
• The Anglo-Sikh Wars led to the annexation of the Punjab.
• Assam was annexed in 1826 by the Treaty of Yandabo; Sindh was annexed in 1843.

The Revolt of 1857 was the first great united struggle of the Indian people against British rule. It is called by many names — the Sepoy Mutiny (by British historians), the Indian Rebellion, the First War of Independence (by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar). Though it failed, it marked the end of the East India Company's rule and the beginning of direct British Crown rule.

Causes: (1) Political — the policies of annexation like the Doctrine of Lapse and the Subsidiary Alliance, and the annexation of Awadh (1856); (2) Economic — heavy land revenue, ruin of handicrafts and heavy taxation; (3) Social and religious — fear of interference in religion, the laws allowing widow remarriage, the spread of Western education, and the activities of Christian missionaries; (4) Military — the grievances of the sepoys, especially the greased cartridges of the new Enfield rifle, which were rumoured to be greased with the fat of cows and pigs — an insult to both Hindus and Muslims; (5) Immediate cause — the refusal of the sepoy Mangal Pandey at Barrackpore (March 1857) to use the greased cartridges, and his attack on his officers. He was executed, and this sparked the revolt.

Course of the revolt: The revolt began at Meerut on 10 May 1857 when the sepoys mutinied and marched to Delhi. They proclaimed the old Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar as the leader. The revolt spread to many places. The important leaders were: Nana Sahib (the adopted son of the last Peshwa Baji Rao II) at Kanpur; Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi, who fought bravely and died on the battlefield; Kunwar Singh, the aged Rajput zamindar of Jagdishpur in Bihar; Khan Bahadur Khan at Bareilly; Begum Hazrat Mahal at Lucknow; and the Maulavi Ahmadullah Shah in Awadh. Bahadur Shah Zafar's sons were killed by Captain Hodson, and the emperor himself was captured and exiled to Rangoon, where he died. The revolt was suppressed by the British by the middle of 1858; Delhi, Lucknow, Kanpur and Jhansi were recaptured, and Rani Lakshmibai died at Gwalior in June 1858.

Results: (1) The East India Company's rule ended; by the Government of India Act, 1858, India came under the direct rule of the British Crown. (2) The post of Secretary of State for India was created, and the Governor-General was now called the Viceroy (Lord Canning became the first Viceroy). (3) The British army was reorganised — the proportion of Indian soldiers was reduced, and the artillery was kept in British hands. (4) The Doctrine of Lapse was abolished and the policy of annexation was given up. (5) The British promised not to interfere in the religious and social matters of the Indians. (6) The Indian princes were assured of their rights. Queen Victoria issued a royal proclamation promising these things. The Revolt of 1857 is thus regarded as a watershed in the history of British rule in India.

Key points to remember:

• The Revolt of 1857 began at Meerut on 10 May 1857.
• The immediate cause was the greased cartridges and Mangal Pandey's action at Barrackpore.
• Bahadur Shah Zafar was proclaimed the leader; he was exiled to Rangoon after the revolt.
• Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi, Nana Sahib, Kunwar Singh, Begum Hazrat Mahal and Khan Bahadur Khan led the revolt.
• Rani Lakshmibai died fighting at Gwalior in June 1858.
• The revolt ended the East India Company's rule; India came under the British Crown in 1858.
• The Governor-General was renamed Viceroy; Lord Canning was the first Viceroy.
• Savarkar called the revolt the First War of Independence.

In the nineteenth century a wave of reform swept over India. Educated Indians, influenced by Western ideas of liberty, equality and rationalism, and shocked by the evils in their own society such as sati, child marriage, idolatry and caste rigidities, launched movements to reform society and religion. These movements together prepared the ground for the national movement.

Bengal led the way. Raja Rammohan Roy (1772–1833) is called the father of the Indian Renaissance. He founded the Brahmo Sabha in 1828, later renamed the Brahmo Samaj by Debendranath Tagore. Rammohan Roy fought against sati, idolatry and superstition, and advocated the worship of one God. He founded the Atmiya Sabha, and supported the spread of Western education and science. It was largely due to his efforts that Governor-General William Bentinck banned sati in 1829. Debendranath Tagore and later Keshab Chandra Sen led the Brahmo Samaj; Keshab Sen even tried to bridge the gap between Hinduism and Christianity.

In Maharashtra, the Paramahansa Sabha was founded, and the great social reformer Jyotiba Phule (1827–1890) fought for the rights of the lower castes and women. He founded the Satyashodhak Samaj in 1873, and gave the slogan 'educate, organise and agitate'. Gopal Krishna Gokhale founded the Servants of India Society in 1905. The Prarthana Samaj in Bombay was influenced by the Brahmo Samaj; its leaders included M.G. Ranade and R.G. Bhandarkar.

In north India, Swami Dayananda Saraswati founded the Arya Samaj in 1875. He gave the slogan 'Go back to the Vedas' and believed in the infallibility of the Vedas. He opposed idolatry, caste and untouchability, and advocated suddhi (reconversion) of those who had left the Hindu fold. The Arya Samaj played an important part in the freedom movement and in social service through its Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (DAV) schools.

The most influential reformer was Swami Vivekananda, the disciple of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa. Ramakrishna taught that all religions are true paths to the same God. After his death, Vivekananda founded the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897. He represented India at the Parliament of Religions held in Chicago in 1893 and gave the message of universal brotherhood. He asked Indians to worship God through service to the poor ('daridra narayana'). Sayyid Ahmad Khan founded the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh in 1875 (later the Aligarh Muslim University); he urged Muslims to take to modern education. The Theosophical Society, founded by Madame Blavatsky and Colonel Olcott, was led in India by Annie Besant, who later joined the freedom movement. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, the great Bengali scholar, championed widow remarriage, which was legalised by the Widow Remarriage Act of 1856.

Key points to remember:

• Raja Rammohan Roy is the father of the Indian Renaissance; he founded the Brahmo Sabha in 1828.
• Sati was abolished by Lord William Bentinck in 1829 due largely to Rammohan Roy's efforts.
• Jyotiba Phule founded the Satyashodhak Samaj in 1873; his slogan was 'educate, organise and agitate'.
• Swami Dayananda founded the Arya Samaj in 1875; his slogan was 'Go back to the Vedas'.
• Swami Vivekananda founded the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897; he spoke at Chicago in 1893.
• Sayyid Ahmad Khan founded the M.A.O. College at Aligarh in 1875.
• Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar championed widow remarriage; the Widow Remarriage Act was passed in 1856.
• M.G. Ranade and R.G. Bhandarkar led the Prarthana Samaj in Bombay.

The Indian National Congress was founded in 1885 by Allan Octavian Hume, with the first session held in Bombay under the presidentship of W.C. Bonnerjee. The early leaders (1885–1905), called Moderates, believed in constitutional methods — petitions, resolutions and appeals. Their great leaders were Dadabhai Naoroji (who exposed the 'drain of wealth' theory), M.G. Ranade, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Surendranath Banerjee and Pherozeshah Mehta. In 1906 the Congress, at its Calcutta session under Dadabhai Naoroji, declared its goal of Swaraj (self-rule).

The partition of Bengal by Lord Curzon in 1905 gave rise to the Swadeshi and Boycott movements. The Extremists, led by Bal Gangadhar Tilak ('Swaraj is my birthright'), Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai (Lal-Bal-Pal), demanded more forceful methods. In 1907 the Congress split at Surat into the Moderates and the Extremists. The revolutionary movement also grew, with secret societies like Abhinav Bharat, and the activities of revolutionaries like Khudiram Bose, and in Assam's history the related revolutionary activities also touched the province.

The years 1909–1919 saw the Morley-Minto Reforms (1909), the foundation of the Muslim League (1906), the Ghadar movement of 1913, and the Home Rule Leagues of Tilak and Annie Besant (1916). The Lucknow Pact (1916) united the Congress and the Muslim League. The great event of 1917 was the Champaran Satyagraha in Bihar, where Mahatma Gandhi, who had returned from South Africa in 1915, launched his first civil disobedience movement in India on the indigo-planters' issue. Gandhi's methods were satyagraha (truth-force), ahimsa (non-violence) and non-cooperation.

The Rowlatt Act (1919) and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre (13 April 1919, when General Dyer fired on an unarmed crowd at Amritsar) changed the course of the struggle. In 1920, under Gandhi's leadership, the Congress launched the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22), which was withdrawn after the Chauri Chaura incident (1922). In 1928 the Simon Commission (all-white) was boycotted, and the Congress set up the Nehru Committee which gave the Nehru Report. In 1929 the Congress, at its Lahore session under Jawaharlal Nehru, declared Purna Swaraj (complete independence) as its goal, and 26 January 1930 was observed as Independence Day. The Salt Satyagraha or Civil Disobedience Movement (1930) began with Gandhi's Dandi March (12 March 1930); the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed in 1931, and the second Round Table Conference was attended by Gandhi. In 1932 the Poona Pact was signed between Gandhi and B.R. Ambedkar over separate electorates.

The Government of India Act, 1935, introduced provincial autonomy, and in 1937 elections the Congress formed ministries in many provinces. During the Second World War the Congress ministries resigned (1939). In 1940 the British government made the August Offer, which the Congress rejected, and the Quit India Resolution was passed on 8 August 1942 at Bombay — the Quit India Movement ('Do or Die') began. Subhas Chandra Bose, who had been Congress president in 1938 and 1939, escaped from India, formed the Indian National Army (INA) or Azad Hind Fauj with the help of Japan, and proclaimed the Provisional Government of Azad Hind; the INA marched to the borders of India but surrendered in 1945. The INA trials of 1945–46 stirred the whole country. The post-war period saw the Royal Indian Navy mutiny (1946), the Cabinet Mission (1946), and the Direct Action Day of the Muslim League (16 August 1946). Finally, Lord Mountbatten's plan led to the Indian Independence Act, 1947, which created the two dominions of India and Pakistan. India became free on 15 August 1947, and the historic 'Tryst with Destiny' speech was delivered by Jawaharlal Nehru. Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated on 30 January 1948 by Nathuram Godse.

Key points to remember:

• The Congress was founded in 1885 by A.O. Hume; W.C. Bonnerjee was its first president.
• Dadabhai Naoroji exposed the drain of wealth; the Moderates used constitutional methods.
• The partition of Bengal (1905) led to the Swadeshi and Boycott movements.
• Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai (Lal-Bal-Pal) were the leaders of the Extremists.
• Gandhi launched the Champaran Satyagraha (1917) as his first civil disobedience in India.
• The Jallianwala Bagh massacre took place on 13 April 1919 at Amritsar.
• The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22) was withdrawn after Chauri Chaura.
• Purna Swaraj was declared at the Lahore session of 1929; the Salt March began on 12 March 1930.
• The Quit India Movement began on 8 August 1942 with the slogan 'Do or Die'.
• India became free on 15 August 1947; the INA was led by Subhas Chandra Bose.

The constitutional history of British India is best remembered through its Governors-General and Viceroys, whose names, dates and major acts are regularly asked in every competitive exam. Remember the sequence carefully.

Governor-Generals of Bengal (1773–1833):

• Warren Hastings (1773–85): the first Governor-General of Bengal under the Regulating Act, 1773. Major events: the First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–82), the Rohilla War, the Chait Singh and Nand Kumar affairs, the foundation of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (1784) and the Pitt's India Act (1784). He translated the Gita.
• Lord Cornwallis (1786–93): the Permanent Settlement of Bengal (1793), the Third Anglo-Mysore War and the Treaty of Seringapatam (1792), the Cornwallis Code and the introduction of the civil services. He is called the father of civil services in India.
• Sir John Shore (1793–98): followed a policy of non-intervention; the Nizam accepted the British in his affairs.
• Lord Wellesley (1798–1805): introduced the Subsidiary Alliance; the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799) in which Tipu Sultan died at Seringapatam; the Treaty of Bassein (1802); the Second Anglo-Maratha War; founded Fort William College (1800) and the Madras Presidency.
• Lord Minto I (1807–13): signed the Treaty of Amritsar with Ranjit Singh (1809); the Charter Act of 1813.
• Lord Hastings (1813–23): ended the policy of non-intervention; the Anglo-Nepal (Gurkha) War (1814–16) and the Treaty of Sagauli (1816); the Third Anglo-Maratha War and the Pindari War (1817–18); introduced the Ryotwari system in Madras.
• Lord Amherst (1823–28): the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–26) and the Treaty of Yandabo (1826), by which Assam and Arakan came under the British.
• Lord William Bentinck (1828–35): the most famous reformer — abolished sati (1829), suppressed the thugs, made English the medium of higher education (Macaulay's Minute, 1835), and is remembered for the Charter Act of 1833. He was the first Governor-General of India (after 1833, the title covered all India).
• Lord Metcalfe (1835–36): the 'Liberator of the Indian Press' — he freed the press from restrictions.
• Lord Auckland (1836–42): the First Afghan War (1838–42); Ranjit Singh died in 1839.
• Lord Ellenborough (1842–44): the Gwalior War and the annexation of Sindh (1843).
• Lord Hardinge I (1844–48): the First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–46) and the Treaty of Lahore; suppression of female infanticide.
• Lord Dalhousie (1848–56): the 'maker of modern India' — introduced the Doctrine of Lapse (annexing Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur and Awadh), won the Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–49) and annexed the Punjab, annexed Lower Burma (1852), and introduced the railways (1853), the electric telegraph, uniform postage, the Public Works Department and the Widow Remarriage Act (1856). His era saw the Santhal Rebellion (1855).

Viceroys of India (1858–1947):

• Lord Canning (1858–62): the first Viceroy; the Revolt of 1857 was suppressed under him; the Government of India Act, 1858, ended the Company's rule; the Indian Councils Act, 1861.
• Lord Lawrence (1864–69): the Bhutan War; warned the Amir of Afghanistan not to interfere in India.
• Lord Mayo (1869–72): the first census was taken (1872); he was assassinated in the Andamans.
• Lord Lytton (1876–80): the Delhi Durbar of 1877 (Queen Victoria proclaimed Empress of India); the Vernacular Press Act (1878); the Arms Act (1878); the Second Afghan War.
• Lord Ripon (1880–84): repealed the Vernacular Press Act (1882); the Ilbert Bill controversy (1883); introduced local self-government and the first Factory Act (1881); the Hunter Commission on education (1882). He is called the 'Father of Local Self-Government'.
• Lord Dufferin (1884–88): the Third Anglo-Burmese War (1885); the Indian National Congress was founded in 1885.
• Lord Lansdowne (1888–94): the Indian Councils Act, 1892.
• Lord Curzon (1899–1905): the partition of Bengal (1905); the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act (1904); the Universities Act (1904).
• Lord Minto II (1905–10): the foundation of the Muslim League (1906); the Surat split (1907); the Morley-Minto Reforms (1909), which introduced separate electorates.
• Lord Hardinge II (1910–16): the Delhi Durbar (1911); the capital was shifted from Calcutta to Delhi (1911); the partition of Bengal was annulled (1911).
• Lord Chelmsford (1916–21): the Government of India Act, 1919 (Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms); the Rowlatt Act (1919); the Jallianwala Bagh massacre (13 April 1919); the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation movements began.
• Lord Reading (1921–26): the Chauri Chaura incident (1922); the Swaraj Party was formed (1923).
• Lord Irwin (1926–31): the Simon Commission (1928); the Nehru Report (1928); the Lahore session (1929) where Purna Swaraj was declared; the Dandi March (12 March 1930); the Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931); the First Round Table Conference.
• Lord Willingdon (1931–36): the Communal Award (1932); the Poona Pact (1932); the Government of India Act, 1935.
• Lord Linlithgow (1936–43): provincial autonomy (1937); the resignation of Congress ministries (1939); the August Offer (1940); the Cripps Mission (1942); the Quit India Movement (1942); the Bengal famine (1943).
• Lord Wavell (1943–47): the INA trials; the Royal Indian Navy mutiny (1946); the Simla Conference (1945); the Cabinet Mission (1946); the Direct Action Day (16 August 1946); the Interim Government.
• Lord Mountbatten (1947–48): the 3 June Plan (1947); the Indian Independence Act, 1947; the partition of India; India became free on 15 August 1947. C. Rajagopalachari (1948–50) was the last Governor-General of free India.

Key points to remember:

• Warren Hastings was the first Governor-General of Bengal; Canning was the first Viceroy.
• The Regulating Act (1773) and the Government of India Act (1858) are the two great dividing Acts.
• Cornwallis introduced the Permanent Settlement; Wellesley introduced the Subsidiary Alliance; Dalhousie introduced the Doctrine of Lapse.
• Bentinck abolished sati (1829); Ripon gave local self-government.
• Lytton passed the Vernacular Press Act and Arms Act; Ripon repealed the Press Act.
• The partition of Bengal (1905) by Curzon was annulled in 1911 by Hardinge II.
• The Morley-Minto Reforms (1909) introduced separate electorates.
• The Government of India Act, 1935, gave provincial autonomy.
• Mountbatten oversaw partition and freedom; Rajagopalachari was the last Governor-General.

Indian culture is one of the oldest and richest in the world. For competitive exams, questions are regularly asked on temple architecture, schools of painting, classical dances and music. Remember the important points below.

Architecture: Indian architecture is broadly divided into three periods. (1) Ancient or temple architecture — Hindu temples follow three styles. The Nagara style of northern India is marked by the curvilinear (beehive-shaped) shikhara; famous examples are the Sun temple of Konark, the Lingaraja temple of Bhubaneswar and the Kandariya Mahadeva temple of Khajuraho. The Dravida style of the south has a pyramidal vimana and a large gateway called the gopuram; examples are the Brihadeshwara temple of Thanjavur, the temples of Kanchipuram and the Meenakshi temple of Madurai. The Vesara style is a mixed style of the Deccan, seen in the Chalukya temples of Badami, Aihole and Pattadakal. Cave architecture reached its height in the Chaitya halls and viharas of Ajanta and Ellora; the Kailasa temple of Ellora (built by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I) is the largest rock-cut temple in the world. (2) Indo-Islamic architecture — the Delhi Sultanate built the Qutb Minar, the Alai Darwaza and the Tughlaqabad fort; the Mughals built the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, Humayun's Tomb and the Buland Darwaza. The true dome and the arch were introduced by the Muslims. (3) Modern colonial architecture introduced Gothic, Renaissance and Indo-Saracenic styles.

Painting: The Ajanta caves preserve the finest murals of ancient India (mainly Buddhist, dating from the second century BC to the seventh century AD). Miniature painting developed under the Rajputs (Rajasthani and Pahari schools) and the Mughals (the Mughal school under Akbar). The Kangra school is the finest of the Pahari schools. In modern times Raja Ravi Varma and Abanindranath Tagore (the founder of the Bengal school) were famous painters.

Music and dance: Indian classical music has two systems — the Hindustani music of the north (great exponents Tansen, Amir Khusrau; forms like dhrupad, khayal, thumri) and the Carnatic music of the south (with great composers Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and Syama Sastri). The Sangeet Natak Akademi recognises eight classical dances of India: Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu), Kathak (Uttar Pradesh), Kathakali (Kerala), Odissi (Odisha), Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh), Manipuri (Manipur), Mohiniyattam (Kerala) and Sattriya (Assam). The Sattriya dance was introduced by Srimanta Sankardeva in the fifteenth century and was given the status of a classical dance in 2000 — this is an important point for Assam examinations. The classical musical instruments include the sitar, sarod, veena, mridangam, tabla and shehnai; Ustad Bismillah Khan made the shehnai famous.

Classical languages: India recognises many classical languages. Tamil is the oldest living language of the world that is still spoken. The classical languages of India are Tamil (2004), Sanskrit (2005), Telugu (2008), Kannada (2008), Malayalam (2013) and Odia (2014), and Assamese, Bengali, Marathi and Pali have also been given classical status. Sanskrit literature includes the Vedas, the Epics, and the works of Kalidasa; in Assam, Sanskrit and the works of the Vaishnava saints (Sankardeva, Madhavdeva) form a rich heritage. The National Flag (adopted on 22 July 1947), the Ashoka Chakra and the Sarnath Lion Capital (the national emblem) are also part of our living heritage.

Key points to remember:

• The Nagara style belongs to the north, the Dravida style to the south and the Vesara style to the Deccan.
• The Kailasa temple of Ellora is the largest rock-cut temple in the world.
• The Qutb Minar, Taj Mahal and Red Fort are masterpieces of Indo-Islamic architecture.
• The Ajanta caves contain the finest ancient murals of India.
• Hindustani and Carnatic are the two systems of Indian classical music.
• There are eight recognised classical dances of India; Sattriya is the classical dance of Assam.
• Sattriya dance was founded by Sankardeva and got classical status in 2000.
• Tamil was the first language given classical status (2004).