The story of Indian art begins in the Stone Age, long before the first cities were built. The earliest evidence of human creativity is found in the rock paintings made by prehistoric hunter-gatherers on the walls and ceilings of natural rock shelters. The most famous site is Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh, discovered by V. S. Wakankar in 1957-58. Bhimbetka has more than 700 painted rock shelters and was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003. The paintings there are arranged in many layers because different generations painted one above the other at the same place.

The themes of these paintings are scenes of daily life: hunting, fishing, dancing, child-birth, religious rites and the gathering of honey. Wild animals such as bison, deer, elephant, boar, tiger and rhinoceros are the most common subjects. The artists used colours of red, white, yellow and green. These colours were made from natural minerals: red ochre (haematite), white lime or chalk, yellow ochre, green copper oxide and black from manganese or burnt wood (charcoal). Brushes were made from plant fibres and twigs. Paintings found in the upper layers are generally of poorer quality, while the oldest layers show the best skill.

Other important painted rock-shelter sites in India include Adamgarh, Kathotia and Lakhajoar in Madhya Pradesh; Piklihal in Karnataka; Kupgallu in Telangana; and Bhimbetka's neighbouring shelters. The prehistoric period is divided into three ages - the Lower, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic, followed by the Mesolithic, when most of the Bhimbetka paintings were made. This Mesolithic period marks the great flowering of rock art.

The term 'protohistoric' is used for cultures which had no writing but whose existence is known from archaeology and from later literature. The chief protohistoric cultures of India are the Chalcolithic (Copper-Stone) cultures. Their main gift to art is painted pottery. Important painted wares include the Malwa ware (black designs on red surface), the Jorwe ware of Maharashtra, and the Black-and-Red ware associated with sites in central India and the Deccan. Designs on these pots include simple geometric patterns, dots, wavy lines and animal figures. Important Chalcolithic sites are Ahar (Rajasthan), Kayatha, Eran, Navdatoli and Maheshwar (Madhya Pradesh), Jorwe and Daimabad (Maharashtra). The famous bronze 'dancing girl' figure belongs to the later Bronze Age, the Indus Valley period, and is studied under that civilisation.

Key points to remember:

• Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh) is the most famous prehistoric painted rock-shelter site in India; it was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003.
• Bhimbetka was discovered by V. S. Wakankar.
• Prehistoric painters used colours made from minerals - red ochre, white lime, yellow ochre and black from manganese.
• The great flowering of Indian rock art belongs to the Mesolithic period.
• Hunting, dancing, honey-gathering and animal scenes are the main themes of rock paintings.
• The Chalcolithic cultures are known for painted pottery - Malwa ware, Jorwe ware and Black-and-Red ware.
• Ahar, Kayatha, Eran, Navdatoli, Maheshwar, Jorwe and Daimabad are important Chalcolithic sites.
• Rock paintings are different from 'rock-cut caves' (like Ajanta), which belong to a much later historical period.

The Indus Valley or Harappan Civilisation (c. 2500-1900 BC) was a Bronze Age urban culture that spread over present-day Pakistan and north-western India. Its two most famous sites are Harappa (discovered first, in 1921, by Daya Ram Sahni) and Mohenjo-daro (discovered in 1922 by R. D. Banerji). John Marshall announced the discovery of this civilisation in 1924. Other important Indian sites are Lothal, Dholavira and Kalibangan (Rann of Kutch and Gujarat), Rakhigarhi in Haryana (the largest site in India), Banawali, and Alamgirpur in Uttar Pradesh, which is the easternmost site. The civilisation is famous for its town planning - streets cutting each other at right angles, a grid system, covered drains and the citadel (the raised western part) separate from the lower town.

Architecture: The buildings were made of standardised baked bricks in the ratio 1:2:4. Important structures include the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro, the Granary (great granaries), the Great Granary at Harappa, dockyard at Lothal (a tidal dock with a brick basin, showing maritime trade), and the water reservoir 'Dholavira' with its unique water management. Dholavira is the site that has a signboard inscription of the Indus script. The people were the first in the world to cultivate cotton.

Art and sculpture:

• Stone sculpture: the bearded priest-king bust from Mohenjo-daro (in steatite).
• Bronze sculpture: the world-famous 'Dancing Girl' from Mohenjo-daro (a nude girl in a dancing pose, made by the lost-wax or cire-perdue method) and the bronze bull or buffalo from Mohenjo-daro.
• Terracotta art: mother-goddess figurines, toy carts, animals.
• Seals: the most distinctive art form - mostly square steatite seals with an animal and an inscription in the Indus script (still undeciphered). Animals shown include the unicorn (one-horned bull), humped bull, elephant, tiger, rhinoceros and the 'Pashupati' seal showing a seated figure surrounded by animals.
• Pottery: plain and painted pottery in red and black designs.
• The people worshipped the Mother Goddess and possibly a male deity (proto-Shiva). They also worshipped trees and animals; the pipal tree motif appears on seals.

The civilisation declined around 1900 BC. Various causes are suggested: floods, drying of rivers (the Saraswati/ Ghaggar-Hakra theory), climatic change and over-use of resources. The Indus script remains undeciphered, so we do not know the language of the Harappans.

Key points to remember:

• Indus civilisation is a Bronze Age urban culture (c. 2500-1900 BC).
• The civilisation was announced by John Marshall in 1924; Harappa (1921) and Mohenjo-daro (1922) were the first excavated sites.
• Lothal (Gujarat) had a dockyard; Dholavira is famous for water management and a signboard inscription.
• The 'Dancing Girl' (bronze, Mohenjo-daro) was made by the lost-wax (cire-perdue) technique.
• The Great Bath is at Mohenjo-daro; the Great Granary is at Harappa.
• Rakhigarhi (Haryana) is the largest Harappan site in India; Alamgirpur (UP) is the easternmost.
• Harappan bricks were baked bricks in the ratio 1:2:4.
• Seals are the most distinctive art form of the civilisation; the Indus script is still undeciphered.

The Mauryan empire (c. 322-185 BC), founded by Chandragupta Maurya under the guidance of his minister Chanakya (Kautilya), was the first great empire to unify most of India. Its art marks the beginning of the historical period of Indian art, and it was a period of both imperial court art (using polished stone) and popular art (using brick, wood and terracotta). The Mauryan rulers used art as a tool of imperial propaganda and religious promotion.

Chief features of Mauryan architecture:

• The Mauryans were the first to use stone on a large scale; the art is characterised by a brilliant mirror-like polish on the stone surface.
• Court art includes the royal palace at Pataliputra (present-day Patna; the remains of the eighty-pillared hall were found at Kumrahar), and the city was described by the Greek ambassador Megasthenes in his book 'Indica'.
• Popular art of the period includes stupas and viharas built of brick and wood, and the famous terracotta figures of the period.

Important monuments and art objects:

1. Stupas: The Mauryan king Ashoka built many stupas over the relics of the Buddha. The Great Stupa at Sanchi was originally a brick stupa built by Ashoka, later enlarged in the Shunga period. Stupas symbolise the Buddha and were centres of Buddhist worship.

2. Ashokan pillars: Ashoka erected polished monolithic (single-piece) sandstone pillars all over his empire. Each pillar has a shaft and a capital (top part). The Sarnath pillar capital - the Lion Capital with four lions seated back to back - was adopted as the National Emblem of India (taken from the Ashokan pillar at Sarnath, now kept in the Sarnath Museum). The pillar at Lauriya Nandangarh and Rampurva (Bihar) are also famous.

3. Animal capitals and sculptures: The Sarnath capital is the finest example of Mauryan sculpture. Animals on the pillars - lions, elephants, bulls - show great realism. The Didarganj yakshi (Chauri-bearer, from Patna) is a beautiful example of Mauryan sculpture, though some scholars place it slightly later.

4. Rock-cut architecture: The Lomus Rishi cave at Barabar hills (Bihar), built for the Ajivika sect, has a highly polished facade and an imitation of wooden architecture in stone.

5. The 'Yaksha' and 'Yakshi' figures: popular semi-divine nature spirits; the great Yaksha image from Parkham (Mathura) belongs to this period.

Megasthenes described Pataliputra as a beautiful city with palaces, and Ashoka spread Buddhism across Asia. Mauryan art, with its royal polish, technical skill and mastery over stone, laid the foundation of Indian monumental art. The empire declined after Ashoka, and the last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, was killed by his general Pushyamitra Shunga in 185 BC.

Key points to remember:

• The Mauryan empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya with Chanakya (Kautilya) as his guide.
• The hallmark of Mauryan art is the brilliant mirror-like polish on stone.
• Ashoka's pillar at Sarnath - the Lion Capital - is the National Emblem of India.
• The palace at Pataliputra (Kumrahar, Patna) and the eighty-pillared hall belong to the Mauryas.
• The Lomus Rishi cave (Barabar hills, Bihar) is a Mauryan rock-cut cave for the Ajivikas.
• The Great Stupa at Sanchi was originally built by Ashoka.
• The Didarganj Yakshi is a famous Mauryan sculpture from Patna.
• Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador, wrote 'Indica' describing Pataliputra.

After the fall of the Mauryas, several regional dynasties shaped Indian art - the Shungas in central India, the Kushanas in the north-west, the Satavahanas in the Deccan and the early rulers of the south. The most important development of this period was the growth of the Buddha image and of three great regional schools of sculpture - Gandhara, Mathura and Amaravati.

1. The Shunga period (c. 185-75 BC): The Shungas rebuilt and enlarged many Buddhist monuments. The Great Stupa at Sanchi was enlarged and given its famous carved gateways (toranas) in this period; the gateways were added around the first century BC, though the stupa was later rebuilt under the Satavahanas. Popular art now replaced the royal style of the Mauryas.

2. The Gandhara School (North-Western India, present Pakistan/Afghanistan): This school flourished under the Kushanas from about the first century AD, with centres at Taxila, Peshawar and Hadda. It was strongly influenced by Greek and Roman (Hellenistic) art, hence it is also called the 'Graeco-Roman' or 'Indo-Greek' school. Its greatest contribution is the first anthropomorphic (human) image of the Buddha, shown with wavy hair, a halo behind the head, flowing robes (like a Greek himation) and calm Greek-like features. Grey-blue schist stone was the main material, and many images were also made in stucco (lime plaster).

3. The Mathura School (central-north India): This school flourished in Mathura (Uttar Pradesh) under the Kushanas. It developed its own indigenous (purely Indian) image of the Buddha using the red spotted sandstone of the Sikri region. The Mathura Buddha is youthful, with broad shoulders, and is based on the older Yaksha tradition. Mathura also produced beautiful images of the Jain Tirthankaras and of Hindu gods like Vishnu, Shiva and the goddesses, as well as the famous 'Heracles' and Bacchanalian scenes.

4. The Amaravati School (south-eastern India): This school flourished in the lower Krishna valley of Andhra Pradesh under the Satavahanas and later the Ikshvakus. The main centre was the great stupa of Amaravati, and other important stupas were at Nagarjunakonda and Jaggayyapeta. The sculpture here is carved on white/greenish-white marble, and the figures are slender, elegant and full of movement. The Amaravati Buddha images are famous for their graceful, youthful beauty. This school also influenced the later art of Sri Lanka and South-East Asia.

Kanishka (c. 78 AD, founder of the Saka era) was the most famous Kushana ruler; the headless statue of Kanishka was found at Mathura. The 4th Buddhist council was held during his reign at Kundalavana (Kashmir). The Kushanas controlled the famous Silk Route, bringing Gandhara into contact with the classical world.

Key points to remember:

• The Buddha's first human image appeared in the Gandhara and Mathura schools during the Kushana period.
• The Gandhara school was influenced by Graeco-Roman art and used grey schist stone.
• The Mathura school used red spotted sandstone and developed the indigenous Buddha image.
• The Amaravati school (Satavahana-Ikshvaku period) used white marble and produced slender, graceful figures.
• The gateways (toranas) of the Sanchi stupa are the best-known example of the Shunga/Satavahana art of central India.
• Kanishka founded the Saka era in 78 AD; the 4th Buddhist council was held in Kashmir under his patronage.
• Taxila, Peshawar and Hadda were important Gandhara centres.

The Gupta empire (c. 319-550 AD) is called the 'Golden Age' of ancient India. Founded by Chandragupta I, it reached its height under Samudragupta (the 'Napoleon of India') and Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya). It was an age of great literature (Kalidasa, the author of Abhijnanasakuntalam, was the court poet of Chandragupta II), science (Aryabhata, Varahamihira) and art. Gupta art set the classical standard, and its ideals of beauty, proportion and restraint influenced the whole of Asia. The Gupta era began in 319 AD (founded by Chandragupta I).

Features of Gupta art:

• The Gupta Buddha image is the most perfect model of Indian art - a peaceful, spiritual face with downcast eyes, delicate drapery and a plain, transparent halo decorated at the edge. The two great centres were Sarnath and Mathura.
• Sculpture in this period attained its highest perfection; the best examples are at Sarnath, Mathura and the cave temples of Udayagiri (Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh).
• Terracotta art reached a high level, for example the figure of the river goddess Ganga from Ahichchhatra.
• Painting reached its peak, best seen in the later Ajanta cave paintings (the Vakataka-Gupta phase).
• Metal work: the famous iron pillar at Mehrauli (Delhi, near the Qutub Minar), which has not rusted in 1600 years, is a Gupta period monument. The colossal copper image of the Buddha found at Sultanganj (Bihar) is a masterpiece of Gupta metal casting.

Gupta architecture:

• The Guptas built the earliest surviving structural (built-up, free-standing) Hindu temples of India. The temples were simple flat-roofed shrines with a square sanctum (garbhagriha) and a pillared porch (mandapa).
• The Dashavatara temple at Deogarh (Jhansi, UP) is a panchayatana temple (with four subsidiary shrines) and is a masterpiece of Gupta architecture.
• The brick temple at Bhitargaon (Kanpur, UP) is the oldest surviving terracotta-brick temple of India.
• The rock-cut temple (mandapa) at Udayagiri and the small temples at Sanchi and Tigawa (Jabalpur, MP) are other important Gupta temples.
• Gupta cave architecture continued the tradition of rock-cut shrines and Buddhist caves.

Literature and learning: The universities of Nalanda and Taxila flourished; the Chinese travellers Fa-hien (during Chandragupta II) and later Hiuen Tsang (in the 7th century) visited India. The decimal system of numerals (the so-called Arabic numerals) and the concept of zero developed during the Gupta age. Sculptures from this period show the deities in their graceful, godly forms and set the iconographic rules for later Hindu, Buddhist and Jain art.

Key points to remember:

• The Gupta age (c. 319-550 AD) is called the Golden Age of ancient India.
• The Gupta era began in 319 AD; Samudragupta is called the Napoleon of India.
• The Gupta Buddha image from Sarnath and Mathura is the classical ideal of Indian sculpture.
• The Dashavatara temple at Deogarh (UP) and the brick temple at Bhitargaon are important Gupta temples.
• The iron pillar at Mehrauli (Delhi) has not rusted for over 1600 years.
• The Sultanganj Buddha (Bihar) is a masterpiece of Gupta bronze casting.
• The concept of zero and the decimal system developed during the Gupta period.
• Kalidasa (Abhijnanasakuntalam) and the astronomer Aryabhata belong to this age.

The origin of the Hindu temple: A Hindu temple (prasada or vimana) developed from the simple square shrine of the Gupta period. It grew by adding, first, a pillared porch (ardhamandapa/mandapa), then a circumambulatory path (pradakshinapatha), and finally the tower over the sanctum (shikhara/vimana) which became the most prominent feature. The main parts of a temple are: the garbhagriha (sanctum where the main deity is placed), the mandapa (pillared hall for worshippers), the antarala (vestibule joining sanctum and hall), the pradakshinapatha (walkway around the sanctum) and the shikhara (tower). In north India the tower over the sanctum is called 'shikhara'; in south India it is called 'vimana'.

The three main styles of temple architecture according to the ancient texts (Shilpa-shastras) are:

1. Nagara (north Indian) style,

2. Dravida (south Indian) style, and

3. Vesara (a mixed or Deccan) style.

Nagara style: The Nagara style flourished from the Himalayas to the Vindhyas. Its chief characteristic is the curvilinear (curved, beehive-shaped) tower called the shikhara, whose top is capped by an amalaka (a ribbed circular stone) and a kalasha (a water-pot finial). Temples generally have no boundary wall or gate (unlike Dravida temples which are enclosed). The plan is generally square, and the temple is often built on a raised platform (jagati) with steps. Other typical features are the amalaka, kalasha, and the presence of a river-goddess (Ganga-Yamuna) at the door. The shikhara is of two kinds: the latina or rekha-prasada (a simple, single curved tower) and the sekhari or phamsana (with clusters of smaller shikharas).

Sub-schools of the Nagara style:

• Orissa (Kalinga) school: temples here have no mandapa in front and are enclosed by a wall; the deul (sanctum tower) is called rekha-deul and the hall jagamohana. Best examples: the Sun temple at Konark (built by Narasimhadeva I of the Ganga dynasty, shaped like a giant chariot with 24 wheels), the Lingaraja temple at Bhubaneswar, and the Jagannath temple at Puri.
• Central India (Khajuraho) school: built by the Chandela dynasty; temples have no boundary wall, are built on high platforms and show erotic sculptures. Best examples: the Kandariya Mahadeva and Lakshmana temples at Khajuraho (UNESCO World Heritage).
• Rajasthan (Maha-Gurjara) style and the later Solanki temples of Gujarat, e.g., the Sun temple at Modhera and the Dilwara Jain temples (Mount Abu) famous for marble carving.

Key points to remember:

• A Hindu temple's main parts are garbhagriha, mandapa, antarala, pradakshinapatha and shikhara/vimana.
• The shikhara is the north Indian tower; the vimana is the south Indian tower.
• The three styles are Nagara, Dravida and Vesara.
• The amalaka and kalasha are the distinguishing features on top of a Nagara shikhara.
• Konark Sun Temple (Orissa) is built in the shape of a chariot with 24 wheels.
• Khajuraho temples were built by the Chandela dynasty and have no boundary wall.
• The Lingaraja temple (Bhubaneswar) and Jagannath temple (Puri) are famous Kalinga-style temples.

The Dravida style developed in the land between the Krishna river and Kanyakumari (the Tamil country and the south). Unlike the Nagara style, the Dravida temple has a boundary wall (prakara) and a tall gateway tower called the gopuram. The tower over the sanctum here is called the vimana, which is stepped and pyramidal in shape (rising in storeys called talas), not curved like the Nagara shikhara. The crowning element is a stupi or kalasha. Other features are the large water tank (temple tank), the pillared halls (mandapas), and the assembly hall (mandapa) with many carved pillars (like the horse pillars in later temples). The main deity's chamber (garbhagriha) is square and the circumambulatory path surrounds it.

Historical development:

1. Pallava period: The Pallavas of Kanchi were the pioneers of Dravida architecture. They created rock-cut temples called 'mandapa' temples and single-rock chariots (ratha) at Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram). The Five Rathas (Pancha Rathas) of Mahabalipuram are monolithic temples cut from single rocks. The most famous is the 'Descent of the Ganga' (or Arjuna's Penance), a huge open-air rock relief. The shore temple at Mahabalipuram (built by Narasimhavarman II, Rajasimha) is a structural temple. The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram was also built by the Pallavas.

2. Chola period: The Cholas raised Dravida architecture to its zenith. The Brihadeshwara (Rajarajeshwara) temple at Thanjavur, built by Raja Raja Chola I (c. 1010 AD), has the tallest vimana (about 66 m) in India and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple was built by Rajendra Chola I. The bronze Nataraja (dancing Shiva) images and the beautiful Chola bronzes belong to this age.

3. Pandya period: They added the huge gopurams; the Meenakshi temple at Madurai is mainly a Nayaka-period building.

4. Vijayanagara period: The Vijayanagara rulers added magnificent mandapas (like the thousand-pillared hall), the famous horse-pillars, and the amman shrines. The Vitthala and Hazara Rama temples at Hampi (UNESCO site) are fine examples.

5. Nayaka period: Added still larger gopurams; the Meenakshi temple complex at Madurai (with gopurams covered in coloured stucco figures) and the Rameswaram temple with its long corridors are examples.

The Vesara style: The Vesara style developed in the Deccan as a blend of Nagara and Dravida features - hence called the hybrid or Chalukyan style. It was perfected by the later Chalukyas of Kalyani and the Hoysalas. In Vesara temples, the plan is generally star-shaped, the vimana is low and broad with a curvilinear top, and there are many lathe-turned pillars. Best examples: the Kailasanatha temple at Ellora (built by the Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna I, carved out of a single rock), the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal (built by the Chalukyas), and the Hoysala temples at Belur (Chennakeshava), Halebidu (Hoysaleshwara) and Somanathapura.

Key points to remember:

• In Dravida temples the vimana is the tower over the sanctum, stepped like a pyramid; the gopuram is the tall entrance gateway.
• A Dravida temple is enclosed by a boundary wall (prakara) and has a temple tank.
• The Pallavas built the Pancha Rathas and the Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram.
• The Brihadeshwara temple at Thanjavur was built by Raja Raja Chola I and has the tallest vimana in India.
• The Nataraja bronze is a masterpiece of Chola art.
• The Meenakshi temple (Madurai) belongs mainly to the Nayaka period.
• The Vesara style is a blend of Nagara and Dravida, best seen in Ellora's Kailasanatha and the Hoysala temples of Belur and Halebidu.

Indo-Islamic architecture began with the coming of the Turks (Delhi Sultanate, 1192 onwards) and reached its perfection under the Mughals. The Muslims brought new elements - the dome (gumbad), the arch (mehrab/true arch), the minaret, the use of mortar (cementing agent) instead of interlocking stones, calligraphy (writing of verses), arabesque (geometric and floral designs), and the charbagh (four-quartered garden). Since Indian masons were employed, Islamic buildings also freely used Hindu elements - carved brackets, pillars, chhatris and jali (perforated screens). This mixture is called Indo-Saracenic or Indo-Islamic architecture.

Architecture of the Delhi Sultanate (1192-1526):

• The Qutb complex at Delhi: the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque (first mosque in India, built from the materials of demolished Hindu-Jain temples by Qutb-ud-din Aibak), and the Qutb Minar (a 73 m high victory tower begun by Aibak and completed by Iltutmish).
• The Alai Darwaza (south gate of the Quwwat mosque) built by Alauddin Khalji - the first true arch and dome structure in India.
• The tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (Tughlaqabad) shows the introduction of sloping (batter) walls.
• Sayyid and Lodi tombs in Delhi use the octagonal plan and double dome.
• Provincial styles flourished in Jaunpur (Atala mosque), Bengal, Gujarat (Jami mosque at Ahmedabad), Malwa, Deccan (Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, famous for its huge dome, second largest in the world) and Kashmir.

Architecture of the Mughals:

1. Babur and Humayun: Babur built gardens; Humayun's tomb in Delhi (built by his widow Haji Begum, designed by the Persian architect Mirak Mirza Ghiyas) is the first great Mughal garden-tomb and the first building to use the double dome in India.

2. Akbar: He mixed Hindu and Muslim styles. The Agra Fort, Fatehpur Sikri (his new capital with the Buland Darwaza, the grand gateway, and the Panch Mahal, Jodha Bai's palace, and the tomb of Salim Chishti) and the tomb of Akbar at Sikandra were built in his reign. Buildings used red sandstone.

3. Jahangir: He favoured gardens and paintings; the tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah at Agra (built by his wife Nur Jahan for her father) is the first building entirely decorated with pietra dura (pietra dura is the inlay of precious and semi-precious stones).

4. Shah Jahan: The golden age of Mughal architecture. He used white marble and precious-stone inlay. His buildings include the Taj Mahal at Agra (built for his wife Mumtaz Mahal, architect Ustad Ahmad Lahori, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the Seven Wonders of the World), the Red Fort (Lal Qila) at Delhi, the Jami Masjid at Delhi (largest mosque in India), and the Moti Masjid (Pearl mosque) inside the Agra Fort.

5. Aurangzeb and later: The Badshahi mosque at Lahore was built by Aurangzeb, but the empire declined and architecture lost its earlier glory.

Key points to remember:

• The Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque (Delhi) is the first mosque in India; the Qutb Minar was begun by Qutb-ud-din Aibak.
• The Alai Darwaza is the first true arch-and-dome structure in India.
• Humayun's tomb is the first Mughal garden-tomb and used the double dome.
• Akbar built Fatehpur Sikri; the Buland Darwaza is its grand gateway.
• The tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah is the first building with pietra dura inlay.
• The Taj Mahal was built by Shah Jahan for Mumtaz Mahal.
• The Jami Masjid at Delhi is the largest mosque in India.

With the coming of the British, European styles of architecture were introduced in India, first by the Portuguese, Dutch and French, and then on a large scale by the British. Three broad phases can be seen:

1. Early colonial (neo-classical) style (mid-18th to mid-19th century): The British first built in the neo-classical style imitating Greek and Roman forms. Examples are the Raj Bhavan and other public buildings in Calcutta (Kolkata). Neo-classical buildings are characterised by columns, pediments and domes copied from the classical world. The St. John's Church and the Writers' Building in Calcutta belong to this phase. The Portuguese built churches at Goa (like the Basilica of Bom Jesus, which holds the remains of St. Francis Xavier) in the Baroque style.

2. Indo-Saracenic style (late 19th century): The British mixed European planning with Indian (Mughal and Rajput) decorative elements - domes, arches, chhatris, jalis. This style, developed by architects like F. W. Stevens, is best seen in the Victoria Terminus (Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus) at Mumbai (a UNESCO World Heritage Site), the Madras (Chennai) High Court, the Mysore Palace and the Prince of Wales Museum in Mumbai.

3. Post-1911 (Imperial Delhi / Lutyens' Delhi): In 1911 the British shifted their capital from Calcutta to Delhi. Sir Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker designed New Delhi. The Rashtrapati Bhavan (Viceroy's House), the Parliament House (Sansad Bhavan) and India Gate were built in a style that combined classical columns with Indian elements (chhatris, jaalis, and the Buddhist stupa-like dome of the Rashtrapati Bhavan). The Victoria Memorial at Calcutta (1921) also belongs to this phase.

Modern and post-Independence architecture:

• Chandigarh was planned by the French architect Le Corbusier; its buildings include the High Court, the Secretariat and the Capitol complex. Le Corbusier also designed the museum at Ahmedabad.
• Louis Kahn designed the Indian Institute of Management (IIM) at Ahmedabad.
• Modern Indian architects include Charles Correa, B. V. Doshi (the first Indian to win the Pritzker Prize, architecture's highest honour), and Laurie Baker (famous for low-cost, environment-friendly buildings).
• Important modern structures: the Bahai House of Worship (Lotus Temple) in Delhi, designed by the Iranian architect Fariborz Sahba; the Akshardham temple complex at Delhi; and the Akshardham at Gandhinagar.
• The Central Vista Redevelopment in New Delhi includes the new Parliament House, inaugurated in 2023, built in a triangular shape with Indian cultural motifs.

Key points to remember:

• The British capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi in 1911.
• New Delhi was designed by Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker; the Rashtrapati Bhavan and India Gate are their works.
• The Victoria Terminus (Mumbai), built by F. W. Stevens, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site in the Indo-Saracenic style.
• Chandigarh was planned by Le Corbusier.
• B. V. Doshi was the first Indian to win the Pritzker Prize.
• Laurie Baker is famous for low-cost, eco-friendly architecture.
• The Lotus Temple in Delhi is a Bahai House of Worship.

Rock-cut architecture means cutting temples, monasteries and halls out of solid living rock. It began with the Mauryan caves (Barabar hills, Bihar) and reached its peak in the Buddhist, Brahmanical and Jain caves of western India between the second century BC and the tenth century AD. The most famous cave complexes of India are Ajanta, Ellora, Elephanta, Badami, Udayagiri (Odisha) and the Buddhist caves of the Western Ghats (Bedsa, Bhaja, Karla, Nasik).

1. Ajanta (Maharashtra): A set of about 30 Buddhist caves cut into a horseshoe-shaped cliff on the river Waghora, Ajanta is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It contains both viharas (monasteries) and chaityas (prayer halls with a stupa). The caves were made in two phases - the earlier Hinayana phase (2nd-1st century BC, e.g., cave 10) and the later Mahayana phase under the Vakatakas in the 5th century AD (Gupta period), when the beautiful wall paintings were made. Ajanta is most famous for its fresco (wall) paintings, which show the Jataka stories (previous lives of the Buddha), the life of the Buddha, and scenes of court life. The 'Bodhisattva Padmapani' painting is world-famous. The paintings belong to the Mahayana phase and are the finest surviving specimens of ancient Indian painting. The Ajanta caves were rediscovered in 1819 by a British officer.

2. Ellora (Maharashtra): A UNESCO World Heritage Site with 34 caves - Buddhist (caves 1-12), Hindu (caves 13-29) and Jain (caves 30-34) - built between the 6th and 11th centuries AD, showing religious tolerance. The masterpiece of Ellora is the Kailasanatha temple (cave 16), built by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I in the 8th century. It is not a cave but a whole temple carved from top to bottom out of a single rock, symbolising Mount Kailash, the abode of Shiva. The Dashavatara cave (cave 15) shows the ten incarnations of Vishnu.

3. Elephanta (Mumbai, Maharashtra): A group of caves on an island in Mumbai harbour, dedicated mainly to Shiva. The most famous sculpture is the Trimurti - a three-faced bust of Shiva (creator, preserver and destroyer). The caves were probably made by the Kalachuri or the Rashtrakuta rulers.

4. Badami (Karnataka): Four caves built by the Chalukyas in the 6th century - the Vishnu, the Varaha, the Vamana and the Jain caves; cave 1 has the famous dancing Shiva (Nataraja).

5. Other cave sites: Udayagiri (near Bhubaneswar, Odisha) has Jain caves (Rani Gumpha, Hathi Gumpha) made by the Kharavela king; the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela is found there. The Buddhist caves at Karla and Bhaja (Maharashtra) and Bedsa are important chaitya (prayer) caves. The cave temples at Mammallapuram (Pallava) and the Ajivika caves are also notable. In Assam, the Sitakunda rock-cut temple near the Guwahati-Shillong road and the Shiva-Dol style temples belong to a later tradition.

Key points to remember:

• Ajanta has Buddhist caves only, famous for wall paintings (Jataka stories); it is on the river Waghora in Maharashtra.
• Ajanta caves were rediscovered in 1819.
• Ellora has Buddhist, Hindu and Jain caves; the Kailasanatha temple (cave 16) was built by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I.
• The Trimurti (three-faced Shiva) is the famous sculpture of the Elephanta caves near Mumbai.
• The Badami caves were built by the Chalukyas.
• Cave 10 at Ajanta is a chaitya (prayer hall) of the Hinayana phase.

Indian sculpture is one of the oldest and richest traditions of the world. In every age, sculptors worked in stone, metal, wood and ivory, but the two greatest traditions are stone sculpture and bronze casting.

Stone sculpture traditions: We have already seen the Mauryan animal capitals, the Kushana Buddhas of Gandhara and Mathura, the Amaravati marbles and the classical Gupta images. After the Gupta age, sculpture continued in the regional styles of the medieval period. The Chalukya and Rashtrakuta caves (Ellora) produced vigorous, dynamic figures. The Hoysala temples of Belur and Halebidu are famous for their soapstone (chloritic schist) sculpture of astonishing detail - every pillar and wall is covered with jewellery-like carving. The Vijayanagara period sculpture is vigorous, best seen at Hampi. In eastern India, the temples of Konark and Bhubaneswar show sensuous, rhythmic figures. In the north, the temples of Khajuraho are famous for their large, confident figures. Jain sculpture is seen at Mount Abu (Dilwara temples) and the Gwalior hill. The great theme of all this sculpture is devotion (bhakti), and the images of gods and goddesses follow strict rules given in the shilpa-shastras (iconography).

Bronze casting in India: Metal images were made by the lost-wax (cire-perdue) process. In this method a wax model is made, covered with clay, the wax is melted out, and molten metal is poured in. The tradition of bronze images is very old; the 'Dancing Girl' of Mohenjo-daro is the earliest example. The finest bronze tradition is that of the Cholas of south India (9th-13th century). The most celebrated Chola image is the Nataraja - Shiva as the cosmic dancer, standing on the demon Apasmara (ignorance), with the drum of creation in one hand and the fire of destruction in another, surrounded by a circle of flames. The Chola bronzes were made by the lost-wax method and show great grace. The Buddhist bronze images of the Pala period (e.g., from Nalanda, the Sultanganj Buddha) and the Jain bronzes are also famous. In the south, bronzes were also used in processions (utsava murtis). The 'temple bronzes' of Kerala and the bronze images of Bastar (Chhattisgarh) are tribal and folk traditions.

Every year the Government of India gives the National Award for master craftsmanship in bronze. The images installed in temples across India - like the idols of Assam's Namghars and temples, and the famous Manikarnika and other brass-ware - belong to the living tradition of Indian metal sculpture.

Key points to remember:

• The lost-wax (cire-perdue) method is used to cast bronze images.
• The earliest bronze figure in India is the 'Dancing Girl' of Mohenjo-daro.
• The Nataraja (cosmic dancing Shiva) is the finest Chola bronze.
• Shiva dances on the demon Apasmara (the demon of ignorance).
• Hoysala temples (Belur, Halebidu) are famous for detailed soapstone carving.
• Pala-period bronzes (Sultanganj Buddha) are examples of Buddhist metal art.
• Chola bronzes were made between the 9th and 13th centuries in south India.

Miniature painting is a style of painting done on a small scale, usually on paper, cloth or palm leaf, using fine brushes and bright colours made from minerals, gold and silver. The tradition grew under the Jain and Buddhist manuscripts (palm-leaf and paper manuscripts), and reached its full glory in the court ateliers (workshops) of the medieval period.

1. Mughal school: The Mughal school of painting began under the emperor Humayun, who brought the Persian painters Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad to India. The school developed and reached its peak under Akbar, who set up a large atelier and got the Persian classics and Indian epics (like the Hamzanama, Razmnama, i.e., the Mahabharata, and the Akbarnama) illustrated. Under Jahangir the style became very refined; he encouraged realistic portraiture, and paintings of birds, animals and flowers (naturalism). Famous painters of this school were Basawan, Daswanth, Mansur (famous for animals and birds) and Bichitr. Under Shah Jahan the style became formal, and under Aurangzeb (who disliked painting) it declined and painters migrated to the hills and Rajasthan.

2. Rajasthani (Rajput) school: This school developed in the Rajput courts of Rajasthan (Mewar, Bundi, Kota, Bikaner, Jodhpur, Jaipur, Kishangarh) from the 16th century. The subjects are religious - mainly the legends of Krishna (especially Rasalila), scenes from the Ramayana and the Ragamala (musical modes) and Baramasa (seasons). The Kishangarh school is famous for the painting 'Bani Thani' (the idealised image of a woman, linked with the poet-singer Sawant Singh). The Mewar school is known for its bold, vigorous style.

3. Pahari school: This school developed in the hill states of the Punjab Himalayas (Basohli, Chamba, Kangra, Guler, Jammu). The early Basohli style is bold and colourful; the later Kangra school, which developed under Raja Sansar Chand, is the most lyrical and delicate, famous for its Krishna themes and feminine grace. The 'Kangra style' represents the finest flowering of Indian miniature painting.

4. Deccan school: This school developed in the Deccan sultanates (Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar) and blended Persian, Mughal and local elements. It is known for its rich colours, dreamy landscapes, and portraits of rulers and saints.

5. Other schools: The Company school (a hybrid style painted by Indian artists for British patrons during the 18th-19th centuries, showing Indian people, festivals and monuments in a European-influenced realistic style) and the Mysore and Tanjore schools of south India (famous for paintings on cloth and wood with gold leaf, used in homes and temples).

Key points to remember:

• The Mughal school was founded by Humayun and reached its peak under Akbar and Jahangir.
• Persian painters Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad were brought to India by Humayun.
• Mansur was a famous Mughal painter of birds and animals.
• The Rajasthani school is famous for Krishna (Rasalila) themes; 'Bani Thani' belongs to the Kishangarh school.
• The Kangra school (Pahari) is famous for its lyrical and delicate style.
• The Deccan school flourished in Bijapur, Golconda and Ahmadnagar.
• The Company school was painted by Indian artists for British patrons.

Apart from the classical (miniature and mural) traditions, India has a rich variety of folk and tribal painting done by village artists and tribal communities. These paintings are usually made on walls, floors (alpona/kolam/alpana), cloth and paper, and are linked with festivals, rituals and daily life. They are simple, colourful and full of symbols.

Important folk and tribal paintings:

1. Madhubani (Mithila) painting, Bihar: Painted by women of the Mithila region on the walls and floors of their homes and on paper. It is done with fingers, twigs, matchsticks and nib pens; colours are made from natural dyes (turmeric, leaves, flowers). Subjects include gods and goddesses (Radha-Krishna, Rama-Sita), the sun and moon, fish and other symbols of prosperity. It has two main styles - bharni (filled with colour) and kachni (line drawing). The paintings are believed to have begun at the time of King Janaka's wedding of Sita.

2. Warli painting, Maharashtra: Done by the Warli tribe (Palghar district) in white paint on red or brown walls. The subjects are daily village life, hunting, dancing and the 'chaukat' ritual. Circles, triangles and squares are used; the spiral is a common motif.

3. Pattachitra, Odisha: Cloth painting ('patta' means cloth, 'chitra' means picture), done on stiff cloth with natural colours and a lacquer finish. Subjects are drawn from Jagannath culture and Krishna lila; a typical work is the 'chitrakar' painting.

4. Kalamkari, Andhra Pradesh/Telangana: A hand-painted or block-printed cotton textile painting done with a pen (kalam); it uses only natural vegetable dyes. The two styles are the Srikalahasti style (freehand temple scenes, mainly from Hindu epics) and the Machilipatnam style (block printing).

5. Phad painting, Rajasthan: A long scroll painting on cloth depicting the lives of folk deities like Pabuji and Devnarayan; used with the accompaniment of the ravanhatha musical instrument.

6. Kalighat painting, West Bengal: A school of watercolour painting that grew in 19th-century Calcutta near the Kalighat temple; it used bold brush lines and depicted gods as well as contemporary social scenes and satires.

7. Thangka painting, Ladakh/Sikkim and Himalayan regions: Buddhist scroll painting on cloth, done in bright mineral colours, showing the Buddha and bodhisattvas.

8. Other traditions: the Gond painting of Madhya Pradesh (dots and lines), the Pithora ritual painting of Gujarat, the Santhal painting of eastern India, and the traditional alpana/alpona of Bengal, kolam of Tamil Nadu, rangoli of Maharashtra and jhoti of Odisha drawn on the floor for festivals.

Key points to remember:

• Madhubani (Mithila) painting of Bihar is done mainly by women with fingers and twigs.
• Warli painting of Maharashtra uses white paint on red/brown walls and shows village life.
• Pattachitra is the cloth painting of Odisha connected with Jagannath culture.
• Kalamkari of Andhra Pradesh/Telangana uses only natural vegetable dyes.
• Phad is a long scroll painting of Rajasthan; Kalighat painting grew up in 19th-century Calcutta.
• Thangka is the Buddhist scroll painting of Ladakh, Sikkim and the Himalayan region.
• Sohrai/Khovar are paintings of the Jharkhand tribes; Gond painting belongs to Madhya Pradesh.

Indian classical dance is based on the theory of dance given in the Natyashastra, an ancient text on performing arts written by Bharata Muni. Its fundamental concepts are nritta (pure rhythmic dance), nritya (expressional dance with meaning) and natya (drama). The two main elements are tandava (vigorous, masculine dance of Shiva) and lasya (graceful, feminine dance). Every classical dance form uses the mudras (hand gestures) and abhinaya (facial expression). The Sangeet Natak Akademi (1953) currently recognises eight classical dance forms of India:

1. Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu): The oldest and most popular classical dance, earlier called 'Dasiattam' or 'Sadir' as it was performed by devadasis in temples. It is a solo dance of a woman, based on the Natyashastra and the texts of the saint-poets (like the music of Muthuswami Dikshitar). It is famous for its fixed poses (like a bronze statue) and the arangetram (first stage performance). Key features: alarippu, jatiswaram, varnam, padam, tillana. Famous exponents: Rukmini Devi Arundale, Balasaraswati, Yamini Krishnamurthy.

2. Kathak (North India - Uttar Pradesh): The word Kathak comes from 'katha' (story); it was performed by storytellers (Kathakas) in temples and later developed in the Mughal courts. It is famous for fast footwork (tatkar), pirouettes (chakkars), and the 'gat-bhaav' and 'thumri' in the Lucknow, Jaipur and Raigarh gharanas. Famous exponents: Birju Maharaj, Sitara Devi.

3. Kathakali (Kerala): A dance-drama of Kerala, known for its elaborate masks, towering headgear and painted faces (green for heroes, red for villains), performed by male dancers. It is based on stories from the Ramayana and Mahabharata. The performance is accompanied by drums (chenda, maddalam) and singers. Kathakali uses eye movements (netrabhinaya) to a very high degree. Famous exponent: Kalamandalam Krishnan Nair.

4. Odissi (Odisha): Based on the temple dance tradition of Odisha (maharis) and described in the Natyashastra as 'Odra-magadhi'. It is known for its three-bend (tribhanga) posture, graceful movements and themes of love of Radha-Krishna. Famous exponents: Kelucharan Mohapatra, Sanjukta Panigrahi, Sonal Mansingh.

5. Manipuri (Manipur): The classical dance of Manipur, performed to the Rasalila of Radha-Krishna. It is known for its gentle, lyrical movements, swaying of the body, and colourful costumes (the barrel-shaped laisheng skirts). The dance is based on the Vaishnava faith. Famous exponents: Jhaveri sisters, Guru Bipin Singh.

6. Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh): Originally a dance-drama performed by Brahmin men from the village of Kuchipudi (Krishna district). It combines grace with brisk footwork; the dancer sometimes dances on a brass plate and balances a pot. The famous solo item is the 'Tarangam'. Famous exponents: Yamini Krishnamurthy, Vempati Chinna Satyam, Raja Reddy.

7. Mohiniyattam (Kerala): A graceful solo dance of women ('Mohini' means enchantress) from Kerala, known for its swaying, undulating movements and white and gold costume.

8. Sattriya (Assam): The classical dance of Assam, introduced by the great saint Srimanta Sankardeva in the 15th-16th century in the Vaishnava monasteries (sattras). Originally performed by male monks (bhokots), it is based on Krishna-Bhakti themes and is performed to the songs of Sankardeva and Madhavdeva (Borgeets). It was recognised as a classical dance by the Sangeet Natak Akademi in 2000. Famous exponent: Jatin Goswami.

Key points to remember:

• The Natyashastra was written by Bharata Muni; the Sangeet Natak Akademi recognises eight classical dances.
• Bharatanatyam is from Tamil Nadu, Kathak from North India, Kathakali and Mohiniyattam from Kerala.
• Odissi is from Odisha; its posture is called 'tribhanga'.
• Manipuri dance is from Manipur; Sattriya dance of Assam was founded by Srimanta Sankardeva.
• Sattriya was recognised as a classical dance in 2000.
• Kuchipudi is the classical dance of Andhra Pradesh.
• Kathakali is famous for its masks and eye movements (netrabhinaya).

Indian classical music has its roots in the Samaveda (the Veda of music, sung during sacrifices). Its theory was developed in the Natyashastra and later texts. The two great traditions of Indian classical music are the Hindustani (north Indian) and the Carnatic (south Indian) systems.

Basic concepts common to both: The raga (a melodic framework with a fixed set of notes and moods) and the tala (the rhythmic cycle of beats). Music is based on the seven notes (swaras) - sa, re, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni. The voice is considered the most important instrument.

1. Hindustani music (North India): This tradition developed under the influence of Persian and Arabic music after the coming of the Turks and the Mughals; the famous musician Tansen (one of the 'nine gems' of Akbar's court) belonged to this tradition. Its main vocal forms are dhrupad (the oldest and most austere form), khyal (the most popular form, light and imaginative), thumri (a light, emotional form), ghazal, dadra and tarana. Instrumental music has the same ragas; famous instruments are sitar, sarod, sarangi, flute, shehnai, tabla and santoor. The tradition is organised into gharanas (schools) like the Gwalior, Agra, Jaipur, Patiala and Kirana gharanas. Great musicians include Amir Khusrau (credited with inventing the sitar and the khayal), Miyan Tansen, Allauddin Khan, Ravi Shankar (sitar), Vilayat Khan (sitar), Bismillah Khan (shehnai), Ali Akbar Khan (sarod), and the vocalists Bhimsen Joshi, Kishori Amonkar and Bade Ghulam Ali Khan.

2. Carnatic music (South India): This tradition developed mainly in the Tamil country, Karnataka, Andhra and Kerala, and remained purely Indian without foreign influence. Its foundation was laid by the saint Purandaradasa, called the 'father of Carnatic music' (he composed the basic lessons like the 'Mayamalavagowla'). The 'Trinity' of Carnatic music - the three great composer-saints Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and Syama Sastri - composed in the 18th century. The main vocal forms are kriti (the central composition), varnam, padam and javali. The most important concert instrument is the violin (brought in by western influence but played in Indian sitting posture by musicians like Mysore T. Chowdiah), the mridangam (drum), veena, flute, nadaswaram and ghatam. Great musicians include the singer M. S. Subbulakshmi and the mridangam maestro Palghat Mani Iyer.

Both systems believe that the singer must first sing the alap (opening exploration of the raga), and a Carnatic concert always begins with a varnam. The Sangeet Natak Akademi gives the highest awards for music. Assam's own contribution includes the Borgeet (devotional songs of Sankardeva and Madhavdeva), the Ojapali and the modern experimental works, while in every Indian language there are great composers of devotional music.

Key points to remember:

• Indian music originated from the Samaveda; the basic concepts are raga and tala.
• The seven swaras are sa, re, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni.
• Tansen was the great musician of Akbar's court; Amir Khusrau is credited with the invention of the sitar and khayal.
• Dhrupad is the oldest Hindustani vocal form; khyal is the most popular; thumri is light and emotional.
• Purandaradasa is the father of Carnatic music; Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and Syama Sastri are the Trinity of Carnatic music.
• The mridangam and veena are important Carnatic instruments; the tabla and sitar belong to Hindustani music.
• Bismillah Khan played the shehnai; Ravi Shankar played the sitar; M. S. Subbulakshmi was a Carnatic vocalist.

Musical instruments of India are traditionally classified into four groups according to the Natyashastra:

1. Tat (stringed instruments - played by plucking, bowing or striking), e.g., veena, sitar, sarod, sarangi, santoor, guitar-like instruments.

2. Sushir (wind instruments - played by blowing), e.g., flute (bansuri), shehnai, nadaswaram, harmonium, pungi (used by snake-charmers), pepa (Assam's buffalo-horn pipe).

3. Avanaddha (percussion instruments - covered with skin/membrane), e.g., tabla, mridangam, pakhawaj, dhol, khol (Assam), nagara, maddalam, chenda, dhak, dholak, baya.

4. Ghan (solid percussion instruments - struck together), e.g., cymbals (manjira/jhanj), ghungroo (anklet bells), ghatam (clay pot), kartal, jal tarang, morsing.

Let us know the most important instruments for exams:

• Veena: The most ancient Indian stringed instrument; Saraswati, the goddess of learning, is shown playing the veena. The Carnatic veena (Saraswati veena) is the main instrument of Carnatic music. Famous player: S. Balachander, Emani Shankar Sastry.
• Sitar: A long-necked plucked instrument developed (tradition says) by Amir Khusrau; famous in Hindustani music. Famous players: Pandit Ravi Shankar, Vilayat Khan, Nikhil Banerjee.
• Sarod: A plucked instrument without frets, made of wood and metal; developed from the Afghan rabab. Famous players: Ustad Ali Akbar Khan, Amjad Ali Khan.
• Sarangi: A bowed instrument, closest to the human voice; used to accompany vocalists. Famous player: Ram Narayan.
• Santoor: A hammered dulcimer (struck with light wooden mallets); popular in Kashmir and played by Shivkumar Sharma.
• Flute (bansuri): A bamboo wind instrument, associated with Lord Krishna. Famous players: Pannalal Ghosh, Hariprasad Chaurasia.
• Shehnai: A wind instrument (oboe type), considered auspicious and played at marriages and temples. Ustad Bismillah Khan made it world-famous.
• Nadaswaram: A loud south Indian wind instrument, played in temples and marriages of the south.
• Tabla: The pair of drums of Hindustani music (the right drum is the tabla, the left is the dagga/bayan). Famous players: Alla Rakha, Zakir Hussain.
• Mridangam: The main drum of Carnatic music; famous players: Palghat Mani Iyer.
• Pakhawaj: An old barrel-shaped drum used in dhrupad singing.
• Ghatam: A clay pot used as a percussion instrument in Carnatic music.
• Harmonium: A keyboard reed instrument brought by the Europeans; now widely used to accompany singing in India.
• Pepa: The buffalo-horn pipe of Assam, blown during the Bihu dance.

Key points to remember:

• The four classes of Indian instruments are Tat (stringed), Sushir (wind), Avanaddha (percussion with skin) and Ghan (solid percussion).
• The veena is the instrument of Goddess Saraswati.
• The sitar is linked with Amir Khusrau; famous sitarists are Ravi Shankar and Vilayat Khan.
• Bismillah Khan played the shehnai; Hariprasad Chaurasia plays the flute.
• The tabla belongs to Hindustani and the mridangam to Carnatic music.
• The ghatam is a clay-pot percussion instrument of the south.
• The pepa (buffalo-horn pipe) is the Assamese instrument used in Bihu.

Indian theatre is one of the oldest in the world. Its theory comes from the Natyashastra of Bharata Muni (which also gives the first description of the stage). The earliest plays were performed in Sanskrit by royal patronage; the greatest Sanskrit dramatists were Bhasa, Kalidasa (Abhijnanasakuntalam), Sudraka (Mrichchakatika, the Little Clay Cart), Bhavabhuti and Vishakhadatta (Mudrarakshasa). Sanskrit drama declined after the 8th century, but theatre survived in the folk traditions and in the dance-dramas of the regions.

Regional and folk theatre (traditional theatre):

• In each region a rich tradition of folk theatre developed - the Rasalila and Nautanki of Uttar Pradesh, the Ramlila of North India, the Jatra of Bengal, the Tamasha of Maharashtra, the Bhavai of Gujarat, the Therukoothu (street theatre) of Tamil Nadu, the Yakshagana of Karnataka, the Veethi Natakam of Andhra Pradesh, the Chhau dance of eastern India (Seraikela, Purulia, Mayurbhanj), the Bhand Pather of Kashmir, the Teratali of Rajasthan and the Koodiyattam of Kerala (the oldest surviving Sanskrit theatre, recognised by UNESCO as an intangible cultural heritage).
• Koodiyattam of Kerala is performed by the Chakyars in temple theatres (kuttambalams); the famous exponent was Guru Mani Madhava Chakyar.
• The Chhau dance combines martial movements with folk dance and is performed during the spring festival (Chaitra Parva).

Modern Indian theatre:

• Modern theatre was born in the 19th century under British influence. The first Indian play staged was Vishnudas Bhave's Marathi play in 1843. Rabindranath Tagore wrote symbolic plays and dance-dramas (Chitrangada, Chandalika, Shyama). Modern theatre workers include Utpal Dutt, Habib Tanvir (Naya Theatre, Chhattisgarh folk style) and Girish Karnad (plays like Tughlaq, Hayavadana). The National School of Drama (1959, Delhi) trains theatre artists; the Sangeet Natak Akademi gives awards for theatre.

Puppetry (putul naach):

• India has a very old tradition of puppetry. The main types are: string puppets (e.g., the Kathputli of Rajasthan, the Gombeyatta of Karnataka, the Bommalattam of Tamil Nadu), rod puppets (e.g., Putul Nach of Bengal, Yampuri of Bihar), glove puppets (e.g., the Pavakoothu of Kerala) and shadow puppets (e.g., the Tholu Bommalata of Andhra Pradesh, the Togalu Gombeyatta of Karnataka, the Ravanachhaya of Odisha).
• Shadow puppetry is the most popular in India; the leather puppets of Tholu Bommalata are famous for their size and colour.

Key points to remember:

• The Natyashastra of Bharata Muni is the source of Indian theatre theory.
• Kalidasa wrote Abhijnanasakuntalam; Sudraka wrote Mrichchakatika; Vishakhadatta wrote Mudrarakshasa.
• Koodiyattam of Kerala is the oldest surviving Sanskrit theatre (UNESCO intangible heritage).
• Ramlila and Rasalila are popular in North India; Jatra in Bengal; Tamasha in Maharashtra; Yakshagana in Karnataka; Therukoothu in Tamil Nadu.
• Chhau dance of eastern India is performed during the spring festival.
• The first modern Indian play was staged in Marathi in 1843 by Vishnudas Bhave.
• The four types of puppets are string, rod, glove and shadow puppets; Kathputli (Rajasthan) is a string puppet.

India is one of the oldest centres of cloth-making and handicrafts in the world. Every region has its own speciality of handloom, embroidery and handicraft, and this cultural wealth is an important part of the economy and of the heritage of the country. The weaving of cotton was known in the Indus Valley period itself; the famous muslin (dainty cotton cloth) of Bengal and Dhaka was so fine that it was called 'woven air'. India also produced fine silks; the golden zari work, and the famous painted and printed cloths.

Important handloom and weaving traditions:

1. Silk: Banaras (Varanasi) silk saris with gold zari; the Kanchipuram silk of Tamil Nadu; the Patola of Gujarat (a double-ikat weave, made in Patan); the Pochampally ikat of Telangana; the Muga (golden) silk of Assam (found only in Assam); the Eri silk and Pat silk of Assam; the Tussar silk; the Mulberry silk of Karnataka; and the Mooga (muga) of Assam which can be washed only in cold water.

2. Cotton saris and cloth: the Jamdani of Bengal (a fine figured muslin); the Chanderi and Maheshwari of Madhya Pradesh; the Baluchari silk sari of Bengal; the Paithani of Maharashtra; the Sambalpuri ikat of Odisha; the Pochampally of Telangana; the Kanjeevaram of Tamil Nadu; and the famous handloom of Sualkuchi (Assam, called the Manchester of the East) which produces the Assam silk and gamosas.

3. Embroidery: the Kashida/Kashmir embroidery (on shawls, with the famous kani and aari work); the Chikankari of Lucknow (white thread work on white cloth); the Phulkari of Punjab (flower work on dupattas); the Kantha of Bengal; the Zardozi of Uttar Pradesh; the mirror-work (abla) embroidery of Gujarat and Rajasthan; the Kasuti of Karnataka; and the Pipli applique work of Odisha.

4. Printing and dyeing: the block printing of Bagru and Sanganer (Rajasthan) and Farrukhabad (UP); the Bandhani (tie and dye) of Rajasthan and Gujarat; the Kalamkari of Andhra Pradesh; and the batik work.

Important handicrafts:

• Wood carving: the Saharanpur and Kashmir wood work; the temple carving of South India.
• Metal work: the Bidri ware of Bidar (Karnataka), in which silver is inlaid on black metal; the Dhokra (bell metal, lost-wax) craft of Chhattisgarh/Odisha and of Assam (the Sarthebari brass and bell-metal industry of Assam); the brass ware of Moradabad.
• Stone and ivory craft: the marble inlay (pietra dura) of Agra; the soapstone carving of Rajasthan.
• Pottery: the blue pottery of Jaipur; the terracotta work of various states.
• Carpets and rugs: the woollen carpets of Kashmir and Bhadohi-Mirzapur (Uttar Pradesh), which are exported worldwide.
• The GI (Geographical Indication) tags protect the identity of these products, e.g., the Muga silk of Assam, the Banarasi sari, the Kanchipuram silk and the Kashmir pashmina have GI tags.

Key points to remember:

• Patola of Gujarat and Pochampally of Telangana are ikat weaves.
• Muga (golden) silk is found only in Assam.
• Jamdani is a fine muslin of Bengal; Kanchipuram silk belongs to Tamil Nadu.
• Chikankari is the embroidery of Lucknow; Phulkari of Punjab; Kantha of Bengal.
• Bidri ware (silver inlay on metal) belongs to Bidar, Karnataka; Dhokra uses the lost-wax method.
• Sualkuchi (Assam) is called the 'Manchester of the East'.
• Bandhani (tie and dye) belongs to Rajasthan and Gujarat.

India has many ancient martial arts (fighting systems) which were developed for self-defence, military training and physical fitness. Each region has its own tradition, many of them connected with festivals and temple rituals.

Important martial arts of India:

1. Kalaripayattu (Kerala): Considered the oldest martial art of India, practised in the north Malabar region in an arena called 'kalari'. It includes strikes, kicks, grappling, weapon training (wooden and sharp weapons like the sword and shield, spear) and the practice of the body (meipayattu). Legend connects it with the sage Parasurama. It is the martial art that most influenced the movements of Kathakali.

2. Silambam (Tamil Nadu): A staff (bamboo stick) fighting art; it is one of the oldest stick-based martial arts. The staff is called 'silambam'.

3. Thang-ta and Sarit Sarak (Manipur): The Manipuri martial art; thang-ta uses the sword (thang) and the spear (ta), while sarit sarak is bare-hand fighting. The Manipuri dance is said to have borrowed some movements from these.

4. Gatka (Punjab): A Sikh martial art using sticks (and swords); performed during festivals, especially by the Nihangs.

5. Lathi and other stick arts (various states): lathi (stick) play was a common village sport; the Parisa/Perisankuttu of Tamil Nadu and the kathi (staff) art of Maharashtra.

6. Malla-yuddha (ancient wrestling): described even in the Mahabharata; the traditional wrestling (kusti) in the akhara (wrestling ground) is still popular; the malla-khamb (pole exercise) of Maharashtra.

7. Squash/bamboo arts of the north-east: besides thang-ta, the tribes of the north-east have archery, and the hill-tribe dances include mock-fighting movements.

8. Other traditions: the Cheibi Gadga of Manipur, the Pari-khanda of Odisha, and the Huyen langlon (also of Manipur).

Traditional games and sports:

• Kabaddi, Kho-Kho, Gilli-danda and the 'Pittu Garam' (seven stones) were played in villages all over India. Kabaddi is now an international game; the Pro Kabaddi League is popular. Kho-kho is played by chasing between lines.
• The traditional wrestling (kushti) with the akhara culture, and the rural sports are part of the living tradition.
• India's gift to the world of games also includes chess - believed to have originated in India as 'Chaturanga' (the four divisions of the army - infantry, cavalry, elephants and chariots). It spread to Persia and Europe later. The game of cards (playing cards) and the game of Snakes and Ladders (Moksha Patam) are also believed to be of Indian origin.
• The martial arts are now promoted by the government through the Fit India movement and by including them in national games and in school training.

Key points to remember:

• Kalaripayattu (Kerala) is considered the oldest Indian martial art, practised in a 'kalari'.
• Silambam is the staff-based martial art of Tamil Nadu.
• Thang-ta (sword and spear) is the martial art of Manipur.
• Gatka is the Sikh martial art of Punjab.
• Chaturanga (India) is believed to be the origin of modern chess.
• Kabaddi, Kho-Kho and Gilli-danda are traditional Indian games.
• Malla-yuddha and kushti (wrestling) were practised in the akhara.

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) declares places of outstanding universal value as World Heritage Sites. As of 2024 India has 43 World Heritage Sites - 35 cultural, 7 natural and 1 mixed. Dholavira (Harappan city, Gujarat) and Ramappa (Kakatiya) temple in Telangana were added in 2021; Santiniketan (West Bengal) and the Hoysala temples were added in 2023. Among the important cultural sites for exams are:

• Ajanta Caves (1983) and Ellora Caves (1983), Maharashtra - rock-cut Buddhist/Hindu/Jain caves.
• Agra Fort (1983) and the Taj Mahal (1983), Uttar Pradesh.
• Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram (1984), Tamil Nadu - Pallava temples and rathas.
• Sun Temple, Konark (1984), Odisha - built as a giant chariot.
• Churches and Convents of Goa (1986).
• Group of Monuments at Hampi (1986), Karnataka - Vijayanagara capital.
• Khajuraho Group of Monuments (1986), Madhya Pradesh - Chandela temples.
• Fatehpur Sikri (1986), Uttar Pradesh - Akbar's capital.
• Elephanta Caves (1987), Mumbai; Brihadeshwara/Great Living Chola Temples (1987, Thanjavur etc.).
• Group of Monuments at Pattadakal (1987), Karnataka - Chalukya temples (Vesara style).
• Qutb Minar and its Monuments (1993), Delhi.
• Humayun's Tomb (1993), Delhi; Red Fort Complex (2007), Delhi.
• Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka (2003), Madhya Pradesh - prehistoric paintings.
• Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus, Mumbai (2004) - Victorian Gothic station.
• Hill Forts of Rajasthan (2013); Rani ki Vav (2014), Patan, Gujarat - stepwell.
• Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara (2016), Bihar.
• The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier - Chandigarh Capitol Complex (2016).
• Jaipur City, Rajasthan (2019) - the planned walled city.
• Kakatiya Rudreshwara (Ramappa) Temple, Telangana (2021); Dholavira, Gujarat (2021); Santiniketan (2023); Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas (2023).

Natural sites include Kaziranga (Assam - one-horned rhinoceros), Manas (Assam), Keoladeo (Rajasthan), Sundarbans (West Bengal), Nanda Devi Valley of Flowers (Uttarakhand), Western Ghats and the Great Himalayan National Park. The only mixed (cultural and natural) site of India is Khangchendzonga National Park, Sikkim (2016).

India also has many items on the UNESCO list of Intangible Cultural Heritage, such as the tradition of Vedic chanting, Koodiyattam, Ramlila, Chhau dance, Yoga (2016), Kumbh Mela, Durga Puja (2021), Garba (2023) and the Assamese Bihu dance was inscribed in 2025, giving the state its first entry in the list. The intangible list is for living cultural traditions, not monuments.

Key points to remember:

• India has 43 UNESCO World Heritage Sites (as of 2024): 35 cultural, 7 natural, 1 mixed.
• The first Indian sites (1983) were the Ajanta and Ellora caves, the Taj Mahal and the Agra Fort.
• Bhimbetka (rock paintings) was added in 2003.
• Kaziranga and Manas (Assam) are natural World Heritage Sites.
• The Khangchendzonga National Park (Sikkim) is India's only mixed site.
• Dholavira, Ramappa temple, Santiniketan and the Hoysala temples are the latest additions.
• India's intangible heritage entries include Yoga, Kumbh Mela, Durga Puja, Garba and the Assamese Bihu dance (2025).

India has a well-developed system of cultural institutions to preserve, promote and teach its heritage. The most important of these are examined here.

Cultural institutions and academies:

• Sangeet Natak Akademi (1953): the national academy for music, dance and drama, with its headquarters in New Delhi. It gives the highest national awards (Akademi Fellowships and Akademi Awards) in the performing arts.
• Lalit Kala Akademi (1954): the national academy of fine arts (painting, sculpture, graphics), headquarters in New Delhi.
• Sahitya Akademi (1954): the national academy of letters, which promotes literature in all Indian languages and gives the Sahitya Akademi Awards.
• National School of Drama (NSD, 1959): New Delhi, trains theatre artists.
• Archaeological Survey of India (ASI, founded 1861 by Alexander Cunningham): protects and maintains the monuments and archaeological sites of India.
• National Museum (New Delhi), National Gallery of Modern Art (New Delhi, 1954), Indian Museum (Kolkata, 1814 - the oldest museum in India, founded by the Asiatic Society), and the Salar Jung Museum (Hyderabad) are the most important museums.
• Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA, New Delhi) and the Centre for Cultural Resources and Training (CCRT) work for the study and spread of culture.
• In Assam, the Srimanta Sankardev Kalakshetra (Guwahati) is the largest cultural centre of the north-east; the Assam State Museum (Guwahati, 1940) is the oldest museum of Assam.

Civilian awards for culture: The Bharat Ratna (India's highest civilian award) has been given to cultural figures such as Lata Mangeshkar, Bismillah Khan, Ravi Shankar and Bhupen Hazarika (2019). The Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan and Padma Shri are also given for art and culture. The highest theatre/music/dance fellowships are the Akademi Ratna (Akademi Fellowships) of the Sangeet Natak Akademi.

National festivals and cultural fairs:

• Republic Day (26 January) and Independence Day (15 August) are the national festivals; Republic Day is celebrated with the great parade on Rajpath (Kartavya Path) in New Delhi.
• Major cultural fairs and festivals include the Kumbh Mela (held by rotation at Haridwar, Prayagraj, Ujjain and Nashik - the largest religious gathering in the world), the Suraj Kund Crafts Mela (Haryana), the Hornbill Festival (Nagaland), the Rongali or Bohag Bihu (Assam, in April), the Onam (Kerala), the Pongal (Tamil Nadu), the Baisakhi (Punjab), the Rath Yatra (Puri), the Durga Puja (West Bengal), the Ganesh Chaturthi (Maharashtra), the Navaratri and Diwali (all over India), and the Hornbill festival of the north-east.
• Classical dance and music festivals, like the Khajuraho Dance Festival, the Ellora Festival, the Tansen Samaroh and the Saptak Festival, are held every year.

Key points to remember:

• The Sangeet Natak Akademi (1953) looks after music, dance and drama; the Lalit Kala Akademi (1954) looks after fine arts; the Sahitya Akademi (1954) looks after literature.
• The Indian Museum, Kolkata (1814) is the oldest museum in India.
• The ASI was founded by Alexander Cunningham in 1861.
• The Bharat Ratna has been awarded to Lata Mangeshkar, Bismillah Khan, Ravi Shankar and Bhupen Hazarika.
• The Kumbh Mela is held by rotation at Haridwar, Prayagraj, Ujjain and Nashik.
• The Srimanta Sankardev Kalakshetra (Guwahati) is the largest cultural centre of the north-east.
• Rongali (Bohag) Bihu is the Assamese spring festival celebrated in April.